rust-by-practice/solutions/generics-traits/traits.md

1.

```rust
trait Hello {
    fn say_hi(&self) -> String {
        String::from("hi")
    }

    fn say_something(&self) -> String;
}

struct Student {}
impl Hello for Student {
    fn say_something(&self) -> String {
        String::from("I'm a good student")
    }
}
struct Teacher {}
impl Hello for Teacher {
    fn say_hi(&self) -> String {
        String::from("Hi, I'm your new teacher")
    }

    fn say_something(&self) -> String {
        String::from("I'm not a bad teacher")
    }
}

fn main() {
    let s = Student {};
    assert_eq!(s.say_hi(), "hi");
    assert_eq!(s.say_something(), "I'm a good student");

    let t = Teacher {};
    assert_eq!(t.say_hi(), "Hi, I'm your new teacher");
    assert_eq!(t.say_something(), "I'm not a bad teacher");
}
```

2.

```rust
// `Centimeters`, a tuple struct that can be compared
#[derive(PartialEq, PartialOrd)]
struct Centimeters(f64);

// `Inches`, a tuple struct that can be printed
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Inches(i32);

impl Inches {
    fn to_centimeters(&self) -> Centimeters {
        let &Inches(inches) = self;

        Centimeters(inches as f64 * 2.54)
    }
}

// Add some attributes to make the code work
// DON'T modify other codes
#[derive(Debug,PartialEq,PartialOrd)]
struct Seconds(i32);

fn main() {
    let _one_second = Seconds(1);

    println!("One second looks like: {:?}", _one_second);
    let _this_is_true = (_one_second == _one_second);
    let _this_is_true = (_one_second > _one_second);

    let foot = Inches(12);

    println!("One foot equals {:?}", foot);

    let meter = Centimeters(100.0);

    let cmp =
        if foot.to_centimeters() < meter {
            "smaller"
        } else {
            "bigger"
        };

    println!("One foot is {} than one meter.", cmp);
}
```

3.

```rust
use std::ops;

// implement fn multiply to make the code work
// As mentiond above, `+` needs `T` to implement `std::ops::Add` Trait
// so, what about `*` ?  You can find the answer here: https://doc.rust-lang.org/core/ops/
fn multiply<T: ops::Mul<Output = T>>(x: T, y: T) -> T {
    x * y
}

fn main() {
    assert_eq!(6, multiply(2u8, 3u8));
    assert_eq!(5.0, multiply(1.0, 5.0));
}
```

4.

```rust
use std::ops;

struct Foo;
struct Bar;

#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct FooBar;

#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct BarFoo;

// The `std::ops::Add` trait is used to specify the functionality of `+`.
// Here, we make `Add<Bar>` - the trait for addition with a RHS of type `Bar`.
// The following block implements the operation: Foo + Bar = FooBar
impl ops::Add<Bar> for Foo {
    type Output = FooBar;

    fn add(self, _rhs: Bar) -> FooBar {
        FooBar
    }
}

impl ops::Sub<Bar> for Foo {
    type Output = BarFoo;

    fn sub(self, _rhs: Bar) -> BarFoo {
        BarFoo
    }
}

fn main() {
    // DON'T modify the below code
    // you need to derive some trait for FooBar to make it comparable
    assert_eq!(Foo + Bar, FooBar);
    assert_eq!(Foo - Bar, BarFoo);
}
```

5.

```rust
// implement `fn summary` to make the code work
// fix the errors without removing any code line
trait Summary {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String;
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Post {
    title: String,
    author: String,
    content: String,
}

impl Summary for Post {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String {
        format!("The author of post {} is {}", self.title, self.author)
    }
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Weibo {
    username: String,
    content: String,
}

impl Summary for Weibo {
    fn summarize(&self) -> String {
        format!("{} published a weibo {}", self.username, self.content)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let post = Post {
        title: "Popular Rust".to_string(),
        author: "Sunface".to_string(),
        content: "Rust is awesome!".to_string(),
    };
    let weibo = Weibo {
        username: "sunface".to_string(),
        content: "Weibo seems to be worse than Tweet".to_string(),
    };

    summary(&post);
    summary(&weibo);

    println!("{:?}", post);
    println!("{:?}", weibo);
}

fn summary(t: &impl Summary) {
    let _ = t.summarize();
}
```

6.

```rust
struct Sheep {}
struct Cow {}

trait Animal {
    fn noise(&self) -> String;
}

impl Animal for Sheep {
    fn noise(&self) -> String {
        "baaaaah!".to_string()
    }
}

impl Animal for Cow {
    fn noise(&self) -> String {
        "moooooo!".to_string()
    }
}

// Returns some struct that implements Animal, but we don't know which one at compile time.
// FIX the erros here, you can make a fake random, or you can use trait object
fn random_animal(random_number: f64) -> impl Animal {
    if random_number < 0.5 {
        Sheep {}
    } else {
        Sheep {}
    }
}

fn main() {
    let random_number = 0.234;
    let animal = random_animal(random_number);
    println!("You've randomly chosen an animal, and it says {}", animal.noise());
}
```

```rust
struct Sheep {}
struct Cow {}

trait Animal {
    fn noise(&self) -> String;
}

impl Animal for Sheep {
    fn noise(&self) -> String {
        "baaaaah!".to_string()
    }
}

impl Animal for Cow {
    fn noise(&self) -> String {
        "moooooo!".to_string()
    }
}

// Returns some struct that implements Animal, but we don't know which one at compile time.
// FIX the erros here, you can make a fake random, or you can use trait object
fn random_animal(random_number: f64) -> Box<dyn Animal> {
    if random_number < 0.5 {
        Box::new(Sheep {})
    } else {
        Box::new(Cow{})
    }
}

fn main() {
    let random_number = 0.234;
    let animal = random_animal(random_number);
    println!("You've randomly chosen an animal, and it says {}", animal.noise());
}
```

7.

```rust
fn main() {
    assert_eq!(sum(1, 2), 3);
    assert_eq!(sum(1.0, 2.0), 3.0);
}

fn sum<T: std::ops::Add<Output = T>>(x: T, y: T) -> T {
    x + y
}
```

```rust
fn main() {
    assert_eq!(sum(1, 2), 3);
    assert_eq!(sum(1.0, 2.0), 3.0);
}

fn sum<T>(x: T, y: T) -> T
where
    T: std::ops::Add<Output = T>,
{
    x + y
}
```

8.

```rust
struct Pair<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

impl<T> Pair<T> {
    fn new(x: T, y: T) -> Self {
        Self {
            x,
            y,
        }
    }
}

impl<T: std::fmt::Debug + PartialOrd> Pair<T> {
    fn cmp_display(&self) {
        if self.x >= self.y {
            println!("The largest member is x = {:?}", self.x);
        } else {
            println!("The largest member is y = {:?}", self.y);
        }
    }
}

#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, PartialOrd)]
struct Unit(i32);

fn main() {
    let pair = Pair{
        x: Unit(1),
        y: Unit(3)
    };

    pair.cmp_display();
}
```

9.

```rust
fn example1() {
    // `T: Trait` is the commonly used way
    // `T: Fn(u32) -> u32` specifies that we can only pass a closure to `T`
    struct Cacher<T: Fn(u32) -> u32> {
        calculation: T,
        value: Option<u32>,
    }

    impl<T: Fn(u32) -> u32> Cacher<T> {
        fn new(calculation: T) -> Cacher<T> {
            Cacher {
                calculation,
                value: None,
            }
        }

        fn value(&mut self, arg: u32) -> u32 {
            match self.value {
                Some(v) => v,
                None => {
                    let v = (self.calculation)(arg);
                    self.value = Some(v);
                    v
                },
            }
        }
    }

    let mut cacher = Cacher::new(|x| x+1);
    assert_eq!(cacher.value(10), 11);
    assert_eq!(cacher.value(15), 11);
}


fn example2() {
    // We can also use `where` to constrain `T`
    struct Cacher<T>
        where T: Fn(u32) -> u32,
    {
        calculation: T,
        value: Option<u32>,
    }

    impl<T> Cacher<T>
        where T: Fn(u32) -> u32,
    {
        fn new(calculation: T) -> Cacher<T> {
            Cacher {
                calculation,
                value: None,
            }
        }

        fn value(&mut self, arg: u32) -> u32 {
            match self.value {
                Some(v) => v,
                None => {
                    let v = (self.calculation)(arg);
                    self.value = Some(v);
                    v
                },
            }
        }
    }

    let mut cacher = Cacher::new(|x| x+1);
    assert_eq!(cacher.value(20), 21);
    assert_eq!(cacher.value(25), 21);
}



fn main() {
    example1();
    example2();
}
```