1770 lines
399 KiB
HTML
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@-webkit-keyframes centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{0%{opacity:0;-webkit-transform:translateY(-20px)}100%{opacity:1;-webkit-transform:translateY(0)}}@-moz-keyframes centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{0%{opacity:0;-moz-transform:translateY(-20px)}100%{opacity:1;-moz-transform:translateY(0)}}@-o-keyframes centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{0%{opacity:0;-o-transform:translateY(-20px)}100%{opacity:1;-o-transform:translateY(0)}}@keyframes centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{0%{opacity:0;transform:translateY(-20px)}100%{opacity:1;transform:translateY(0)}}.centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{-webkit-animation-duration:1s;-moz-animation-duration:1s;-o-animation-duration:1s;animation-duration:1s;-webkit-animation-fill-mode:both;-moz-animation-fill-mode:both;-o-animation-fill-mode:both;animation-fill-mode:both;-webkit-animation-name:centralAuthPPersonalAnimation;-moz-animation-name:centralAuthPPersonalAnimation;-o-animation-name:centralAuthPPersonalAnimation;animation-name:centralAuthPPersonalAnimation}
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@media print{#centralNotice{display:none}}.cn-closeButton{display:inline-block;zoom:1;background:url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAABQAAAAUBAMAAAB/pwA+AAAAElBMVEUAAAAQEBDPz88AAABAQEDv7+9oe1vvAAAABnRSTlMA3rLe3rJS22KzAAAARElEQVQI12PAAUIUQCSTK5BwFgIxFU1AhKECUFAYKAAioXwwBeZChMGCEGGQIFQYJohgIhQgtCEMQ7ECYTHCOciOxA4AADgJTXIb9s8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=) no-repeat;background:url(/w/extensions/CentralNotice/resources/subscribing/close.png?8e3d8) no-repeat!ie;width:20px;height:20px;text-indent:20px;white-space:nowrap;overflow:hidden}
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.uls-menu{border-radius:2px; font-size:medium}.uls-search,.uls-language-settings-close-block{border-top-right-radius:2px;border-top-left-radius:2px}.uls-language-list{border-bottom-right-radius:2px;border-bottom-left-radius:2px}.uls-menu.callout:before,.uls-menu.callout:after{border-top:10px solid transparent;border-bottom:10px solid transparent;display:inline-block; top:17px;position:absolute;content:''}.uls-menu.callout.selector-right:before{ border-left:10px solid #c8ccd1; right:-11px}.uls-menu.callout.selector-right:after{ border-left:10px solid #fff; right:-10px}.uls-menu.callout.selector-left:before{ border-right:10px solid #c8ccd1; left:-11px}.uls-menu.callout.selector-left:after{ border-right:10px solid #fff; left:-10px}.uls-ui-languages button{margin:5px 15px 5px 0;white-space:nowrap;overflow:hidden}.uls-search-wrapper-wrapper{position:relative;padding-left:40px;margin-top:5px;margin-bottom:5px}.uls-icon-back{background:transparent url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/resources/images/back-grey-ltr.png?90e9b) no-repeat scroll center center;background-image:-webkit-linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/resources/images/back-grey-ltr.svg?e226b);background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22 width=%2224%22 height=%2224%22 viewBox=%220 0 24 24%22%3E %3Cpath fill=%22%2354595d%22 d=%22M7 13.1l8.9 8.9c.8-.8.8-2 0-2.8l-6.1-6.1 6-6.1c.8-.8.8-2 0-2.8L7 13.1z%22/%3E %3C/svg%3E");background-size:28px;background-position:center center;height:32px;width:40px;display:block;position:absolute;left:0;border-right:1px solid #c8ccd1;opacity:0.8}.uls-icon-back:hover{opacity:1;cursor:pointer}.uls-menu .uls-no-results-view .uls-no-found-more{background-color:#fff}.uls-menu .uls-no-results-view h3{padding:0 28px;margin:0;color:#54595d;font-size:1em;font-weight:normal} .skin-vector .uls-menu{border-color:#c8ccd1;-webkit-box-shadow:0 2px 2px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.25);box-shadow:0 2px 2px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.25);font-size:0.875em}.skin-vector .uls-search{border-bottom-color:#c8ccd1}.skin-vector .uls-filtersuggestion{color:#72777d}.skin-vector .uls-lcd-region-title{color:#54595d}
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.ve-activated .ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-editableContent #toc,.ve-activated #siteNotice,.ve-activated .mw-indicators,.ve-activated #t-print,.ve-activated #t-permalink,.ve-activated #p-coll-print_export,.ve-activated #t-cite,.ve-deactivating .ve-ui-surface,.ve-active .ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-editableContent,.ve-active .ve-init-mw-tempWikitextEditorWidget{display:none} .ve-activating .ve-ui-surface{height:0;padding:0 !important; overflow:hidden} .ve-loading #content > :not(.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-loading-overlay), .ve-activated .ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-uneditableContent{pointer-events:none;-webkit-user-select:none;-moz-user-select:none;-ms-user-select:none;user-select:none;opacity:0.5}.ve-activated #catlinks{cursor:pointer}.ve-activated #catlinks a{opacity:1} .ve-activated #content{position:relative} .ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-loading-overlay{position:absolute;top:1.25em;left:0;right:0;z-index:1;margin-top:-0.5em}.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-progress{height:1em;overflow:hidden;margin:0 25%}.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-progress-bar{height:1em;width:0}.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbarPlaceholder{transition:height 250ms ease;height:0; } .oo-ui-element-hidden{display:none !important; } .mw-editsection{white-space:nowrap; unicode-bidi:-moz-isolate;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;unicode-bidi:isolate}.mw-editsection-divider{color:#54595d} .ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-progress{height:0.75em;border:1px solid #36c;background:#fff;border-radius:2px;box-shadow:0 0.1em 0 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15)}.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-progress-bar{height:0.75em;background:#36c}.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbarPlaceholder{border-bottom:1px solid #c8ccd1;box-shadow:0 1px 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbarPlaceholder-open{height:40px} .ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbar,.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbarPlaceholder{font-size:0.875em; margin:-1.14em -1.14em 1.14em -1.14em; }@media screen and (min-width:982px){.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbar,.ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-toolbarPlaceholder{ margin:-1.43em -1.71em 1.43em -1.71em}}</style><style>
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.mw-collapsible-toggle{float:right;-moz-user-select:none;-webkit-user-select:none;-ms-user-select:none;user-select:none}.mw-collapsible-toggle-default:before{content:'['}.mw-collapsible-toggle-default:after{content:']'}.mw-customtoggle,.mw-collapsible-toggle{cursor:pointer} caption .mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-ltr caption .mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-rtl caption .mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-rtl .mw-content-ltr caption .mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-ltr .mw-content-rtl caption .mw-collapsible-toggle{float:none}</style><style>
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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Intellectual property</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div>
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<div id="mw-content-text" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the legal concept. For the 2006 film, see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_Property_(film)" title="Intellectual Property (film)">Intellectual Property (film)</a>.</div>
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<div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Notion of ownership of ideas and processes</div><table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"><tbody><tr><th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a></th></tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:#aaddff; color:#000;">
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Primary rights</th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<div class="hlist">
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<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_rights" title="Intellectual rights">Intellectual rights</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_indication" title="Geographical indication">Geographical indication</a></li></ul>
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</div></td>
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</tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:#aaddff; color:#000;">
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<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">Sui generis</a></i> rights</th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<div class="hlist">
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<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authors%27_rights" title="Authors' rights">Authors' rights</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Database right">Database right</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Indigenous intellectual property</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design right</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit_layout_design_protection" title="Integrated circuit layout design protection">Integrated circuit layout design protection</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">Moral rights</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Related_rights" title="Related rights">Related rights</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplementary_protection_certificate" title="Supplementary protection certificate">Supplementary protection certificate</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_model" title="Utility model">Utility model</a></li></ul>
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||
</div></td>
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</tr><tr><th style="padding:0.1em;background:#aaddff; color:#000;">
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Related topics</th></tr><tr><td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<div class="hlist">
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<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abandonware" title="Abandonware">Abandonware</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-copyright" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">Limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">Fair dealing</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">Fair use</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_quote" title="Right to quote">Right to quote</a></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_works" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphan works">Orphan works</a></li>
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||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">Patent troll</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_intellectual_property" title="Outline of intellectual property">Outline of intellectual property</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_patents" title="Outline of patents">Outline of patents</a>)</li></ul>
|
||
<hr>
|
||
<i>Higher category:</i> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></td>
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<p><b>Intellectual property</b> (<b>IP</b>) is a category of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property" title="">property</a> that includes intangible creations of the human intellect.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> Intellectual property encompasses two types of rights; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_property" title="Industrial property">industrial property</a> rights (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, designations of origin, industrial designs and models) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
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||
It was not until the 19th century that the term "intellectual property"
|
||
began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became
|
||
commonplace in the majority of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Lemley_2005_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lemley_2005-8">[8]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a large variety of intellectual goods.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
|
||
To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to
|
||
the information and intellectual goods they create – usually for a
|
||
limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their
|
||
creation, because it allows people to profit from the information and
|
||
intellectual goods they create.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-10">[10]</a></sup>
|
||
These economic incentives are expected to stimulate innovation and
|
||
contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on
|
||
the extent of protection granted to innovators.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The intangible nature of intellectual property presents
|
||
difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods.
|
||
Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible" –
|
||
an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without
|
||
it being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods
|
||
suffer from problems of appropriation – a landowner can surround their
|
||
land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but a
|
||
producer of information or an intellectual good can usually do very
|
||
little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a
|
||
lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to
|
||
encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they
|
||
prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual
|
||
property law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-12">[12]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div id="toc" class="toc"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" dir="ltr" lang="en"><h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Intellectual_property_rights"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Intellectual property rights</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Patents"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Patents</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Copyright"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Copyright</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Industrial_design_rights"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Industrial design rights</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Plant_varieties"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Plant varieties</span></a></li>
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||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Trademarks"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Trademarks</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Trade_dress"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Trade dress</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Trade_secrets"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Trade secrets</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Object_of_intellectual_property_law"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Object of intellectual property law</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Financial_incentive"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Financial incentive</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Economic_growth"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Economic growth</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Morality"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Morality</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Patent_infringement"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Patent infringement</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Copyright_infringement"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Copyright infringement</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Trademark_infringement"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Trademark infringement</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Trade_secret_misappropriation"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Trade secret misappropriation</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Criticisms"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Criticisms</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#The_term_"intellectual_property""><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">The term "intellectual property"</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Alternative_terms"><span class="tocnumber">5.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Alternative terms</span></a></li>
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||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
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<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Objections_to_overbroad_intellectual_property_laws"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Objections to overbroad intellectual property laws</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Use in corporate tax avoidance</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
|
||
<ul>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
|
||
</ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_copyright_law" title="History of copyright law">History of copyright law</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_patent_law" title="History of patent law">History of patent law</a></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statute_of_anne.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/220px-Statute_of_anne.jpg" decoding="async" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/330px-Statute_of_anne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Statute_of_anne.jpg/440px-Statute_of_anne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="461" data-file-height="852" width="220" height="407"></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statute_of_anne.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> came into force in 1710</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Monopolies" title="Statute of Monopolies">Statute of Monopolies</a> (1624) and the British <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute_of_Anne" title="Statute of Anne">Statute of Anne</a> (1710) are seen as the origins of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent law">patent law</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property.
|
||
</p><p>The first known use of the term <i>intellectual property</i> dates to 1769, when a piece published in the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Review_(London)" title="Monthly Review (London)">Monthly Review</a></i> used the phrase.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup>
|
||
The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808,
|
||
when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The German equivalent was used with the founding of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_German_Confederation" title="North German Confederation">North German Confederation</a> whose <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (<i>Schutz des geistigen Eigentums</i>) to the confederation.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> When the administrative secretariats established by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Industrial_Property" title="Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property">Paris Convention</a> (1883) and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Literary_and_Artistic_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works">Berne Convention</a> (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_International_Bureaux_for_the_Protection_of_Intellectual_Property" title="United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property">United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property</a>.
|
||
</p><p>The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960, and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_Establishing_the_World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization">treaty</a> as an agency of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. According to legal scholar <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Lemley" title="Mark Lemley">Mark Lemley</a>,
|
||
it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the
|
||
United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention),<sup id="cite_ref-Lemley_2005_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lemley_2005-8">[8]</a></sup> and it did not enter popular usage there until passage of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayh-Dole_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayh-Dole Act">Bayh-Dole Act</a> in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<blockquote><p>"The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Elizabeth I">Queen Elizabeth I</a>
|
||
(1558–1603) for monopoly privileges... Approximately 200 years after
|
||
the end of Elizabeth's reign, however, a patent represents a legal <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Right">right</a>
|
||
obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the
|
||
production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention...
|
||
[demonstrating] the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to
|
||
common-law doctrine."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
|
||
<p>The term can be found used in an October 1845 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Massachusetts_Circuit_Court&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Massachusetts Circuit Court (page does not exist)">Massachusetts Circuit Court</a> ruling in the patent case <i>Davoll et al. v. Brown.</i>,
|
||
in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can
|
||
we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions
|
||
and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or
|
||
the flocks he rears."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> The statement that "discoveries are..property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_law_of_1791&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="French law of 1791 (page does not exist)">French law of 1791</a>
|
||
stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure
|
||
the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery,
|
||
there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen
|
||
years."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> In Europe, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> author A. Nion mentioned <i>propriété intellectuelle</i> in his <i>Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs</i>, published in 1846.
|
||
</p><p>Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovation</a>. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time and scope.<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-21">[21]</a></sup>
|
||
This is mainly as a result of knowledge being traditionally viewed as a
|
||
public good, in order to allow its extensive dissemination and
|
||
improvement thereof.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The concept's origins can potentially be traced back further. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish law">Jewish law</a>
|
||
includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of
|
||
modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual
|
||
creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of
|
||
Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term
|
||
publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a> offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>According to Jean-Frédéric Morin, "the global intellectual property regime is currently in the midst of a paradigm shift".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
|
||
Indeed, up until the early 2000s the global IP regime used to be
|
||
dominated by high standards of protection characteristic of IP laws from
|
||
Europe or the United States, with a vision that uniform application of
|
||
these standards over every country and to several fields with little
|
||
consideration over social, cultural or environmental values or of the
|
||
national level of economic development. Morin argues that "the emerging
|
||
discourse of the global IP regime advocates for greater policy
|
||
flexibility and greater access to knowledge, especially for developing
|
||
countries." Indeed, with the Development Agenda adopted by WIPO in 2007,
|
||
a set of 45 recommendations to adjust WIPO's activities to the specific
|
||
needs of developing countries and aim to reduce distortions especially
|
||
on issues such as patients’ access to medicines, Internet users’ access
|
||
to information, farmers’ access to seeds, programmers’ access to source
|
||
codes or students’ access to scientific articles.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> However, this paradigm shift has not yet manifested itself in concrete legal reforms at the international level.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Similarly, it is based on these background that the Trade-Related
|
||
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement requires
|
||
members of the WTO to set minimum standards of legal protection, but its
|
||
objective to have a “one-fits-all” protection law on Intellectual
|
||
Property has been viewed with controversies regarding differences in the
|
||
development level of countries.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
|
||
Despite the controversy, the agreement has extensively incorporated
|
||
intellectual property rights into the global trading system for the
|
||
first time in 1995, and has prevailed as the most comprehensive
|
||
agreement reached by the world.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Intellectual_property_rights">Intellectual property rights</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Intellectual property rights">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<p>Intellectual property rights include <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">industrial design rights</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademarks</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_variety_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant variety rights">plant variety rights</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">trade dress</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_indications" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographical indications">geographical indications</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> and in some jurisdictions <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secrets</a>. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_generis" title="Sui generis">sui generis</a></i> exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Mask work">mask work</a> rights in the US) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplementary_protection_certificate" title="Supplementary protection certificate">supplementary protection certificates</a> for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them) and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Database rights">database rights</a> (in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EC_law" class="mw-redirect" title="EC law">European law</a>).
|
||
The term "industrial property" is sometimes used to refer to a large
|
||
subset of intellectual property rights including patents, trademarks,
|
||
industrial designs, utility models, service marks, trade names, and
|
||
geographical indications.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Patents">Patents</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Patents">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></div>
|
||
<p>A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a>
|
||
is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor or their
|
||
successor-in-title, giving the owner the right to exclude others from
|
||
making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">invention</a>
|
||
for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of
|
||
the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological
|
||
problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to
|
||
fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there
|
||
needs to be an industrial applicability.<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2-32">[32]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>17</span></sup>
|
||
To enrich the body of knowledge and stimulate innovation, it is an
|
||
obligation for patent owners to disclose valuable information about
|
||
their inventions to the public.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo.int_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo.int-33">[33]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Copyright">Copyright</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Copyright">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">Copyright</a></div>
|
||
<p>A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> gives the creator of an original work <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_right" title="Exclusive right">exclusive rights</a>
|
||
to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range
|
||
of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works".<sup id="cite_ref-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights-34">[34]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Art_and_copyright-36">[36]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Industrial_design_rights">Industrial design rights</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Industrial design rights">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">Industrial design right</a></div>
|
||
<p>An <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_design_right" title="Industrial design right">industrial design right</a> (sometimes called "design right" or <i>design patent</i>)
|
||
protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian.
|
||
An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration
|
||
or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color
|
||
in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial
|
||
design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a
|
||
product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Generally speaking, it is
|
||
what makes a product look appealing, and as such, it increases the
|
||
commercial value of goods.<sup id="cite_ref-wipo.int_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wipo.int-33">[33]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Plant_varieties">Plant varieties</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Plant varieties">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a></div>
|
||
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">Plant breeders' rights</a>
|
||
or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new
|
||
variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and
|
||
distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of
|
||
the variety is considered.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trademarks">Trademarks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trademarks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">Trademark</a></div>
|
||
<p>A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> is a recognizable <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression (language)">expression</a> which distinguishes <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">products</a> or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trade_dress">Trade dress</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Trade dress">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a></div>
|
||
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_dress" title="Trade dress">Trade dress</a>
|
||
is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the
|
||
visual and aesthetic appearance of a product or its packaging (or even
|
||
the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to
|
||
consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trade_secrets">Trade secrets</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Trade secrets">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></div>
|
||
<p>A <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">trade secret</a> is a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula" title="Formula">formula</a>, practice, process, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a>, instrument, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">pattern</a>, or compilation of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a> which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>
|
||
can obtain an economic advantage over competitors and customers. There
|
||
is no formal government protection granted; each business must take
|
||
measures to guard its own trade secrets (e.g., Formula of its soft
|
||
drinks is a trade secret for Coca-Cola.)
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Object_of_intellectual_property_law">Object of intellectual property law</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Object of intellectual property law">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<p>The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the
|
||
creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods for consumers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-10">[10]</a></sup>
|
||
To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights
|
||
to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a
|
||
limited period of time. Because they can then profit from them, this
|
||
gives economic incentive for their creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-10">[10]</a></sup>
|
||
The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties
|
||
when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike
|
||
traditional property, intellectual property is indivisible – an
|
||
unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without it
|
||
being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer
|
||
from problems of appropriation – while a landowner can surround their
|
||
land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, a producer
|
||
of information or an intellectual good can usually do very little to
|
||
stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower
|
||
price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the
|
||
creation of information and intellectual goods but not so strong that
|
||
they prevent their wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual
|
||
property law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-12">[12]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of
|
||
inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner
|
||
mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors
|
||
to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the
|
||
objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support
|
||
its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some
|
||
intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation,
|
||
they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have
|
||
sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to
|
||
capture the full social value of their inventions".<sup id="cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-21">[21]</a></sup>
|
||
This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual
|
||
property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law
|
||
and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law,
|
||
such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leahy-Smith_America_Invents_Act" title="Leahy-Smith America Invents Act">America Invents Act</a>,
|
||
stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much
|
||
debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to
|
||
protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over
|
||
risks of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification" title="Commodification">commodification</a> derived from this possibility.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Financial_incentive">Financial incentive</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Financial incentive">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to
|
||
benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial
|
||
incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property,
|
||
and, in case of patents, pay associated <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> costs.<sup id="cite_ref-MonoProf_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MonoProf-42">[42]</a></sup>
|
||
In the United States Article I Section 8 Clause 8 of the Constitution,
|
||
commonly called the Patent and Copyright Clause, reads; "[The Congress
|
||
shall have power] 'To promote the progress of science and useful arts,
|
||
by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive
|
||
right to their respective writings and discoveries.'"<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> ”Some commentators, such as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">David Levine</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Michele Boldrin</a>, dispute this justification.<sup id="cite_ref-R000000_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R000000-44">[44]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office
|
||
approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U.S. economy
|
||
is more than US $5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18
|
||
million American people. The value of intellectual property is
|
||
considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in
|
||
the European Union.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pension_led_funding" title="Pension led funding">pension-led funding</a>
|
||
and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the UK
|
||
Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are millions of intangible
|
||
business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or
|
||
only being leveraged inadvertently".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic_growth">Economic growth</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economic growth">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements
|
||
underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is
|
||
essential to maintaining economic growth. The <i>WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook</i> gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<blockquote><p>One is to give statutory expression to the moral and
|
||
economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the
|
||
public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a
|
||
deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination
|
||
and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would
|
||
contribute to economic and social development.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
|
||
<p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement" title="Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement">Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement</a>
|
||
(ACTA) states that "effective enforcement of intellectual property
|
||
rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries
|
||
and globally".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> "IP-intensive industries" are estimated to generate 72 percent more <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_added" title="Value added">value added</a> (price minus material cost) per employee than "non-IP-intensive industries".<sup id="cite_ref-Shapiro-Pham_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shapiro-Pham-50">[50]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2009)">dubious</span></a> <span class="metadata"> – <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Intellectual_property#Dubious" title="Talk:Intellectual property">discuss</a></span></i>]</sup>
|
||
</p><p>A joint research project of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIPO" class="mw-redirect" title="WIPO">WIPO</a> and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_University" title="United Nations University">United Nations University</a>
|
||
measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a
|
||
positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and
|
||
subsequent economic growth."<sup id="cite_ref-WIPO:_Economic_Impact_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WIPO:_Economic_Impact-51">[51]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Morality">Morality</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Morality">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>According to Article 27 of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>,
|
||
"everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material
|
||
interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production
|
||
of which he is the author".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a></sup> Although the relationship between intellectual property and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> is a complex one,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> there are moral arguments for intellectual property.
|
||
</p><p>The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three
|
||
major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is
|
||
an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual
|
||
property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further
|
||
innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based
|
||
on deservedness and hard work.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Various moral justifications for private property can be used to
|
||
argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ol><li><i>Natural Rights/Justice Argument</i>: this argument is based
|
||
on Locke's idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and/or
|
||
products which is produced by his/her body. Appropriating these
|
||
products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated
|
||
that natural right applied to products of the mind,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a></sup>
|
||
it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights,
|
||
in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another's ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup>
|
||
Locke's argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that
|
||
laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue
|
||
that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership
|
||
extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this
|
||
right when it comes to production.</li>
|
||
<li><i>Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument</i>: according to this rationale, a
|
||
society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous
|
||
than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century
|
||
America has been attributed to the development of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patent</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup>
|
||
By providing innovators with "durable and tangible return on their
|
||
investment of time, labor, and other resources", intellectual property
|
||
rights seek to maximize social utility.<sup id="cite_ref-Spinello_2007_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spinello_2007-58">[58]</a></sup>
|
||
The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the
|
||
"creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works".<sup id="cite_ref-Spinello_2007_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spinello_2007-58">[58]</a></sup>
|
||
Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a
|
||
lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as
|
||
Intellectual property optimize social utility.</li>
|
||
<li><i>"Personality" Argument</i>: this argument is based on a quote from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>:
|
||
"Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the
|
||
thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing
|
||
and recreate it as his own".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup> European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an "extension of oneself and of one's personality".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup>
|
||
Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is
|
||
inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs
|
||
stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims
|
||
that have to do with personality.</li></ol>
|
||
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a>
|
||
(1855) argues "that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a
|
||
natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property,
|
||
in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right
|
||
of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on
|
||
identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material
|
||
things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two
|
||
cases".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Writer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> argued in her book <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism:_The_Unknown_Ideal" title="Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal">Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</a></i>
|
||
that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral
|
||
issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth
|
||
and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property.
|
||
To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than
|
||
violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of
|
||
survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span id="Infringement.2C_misappropriation.2C_and_enforcement"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Infringement,_misappropriation,_and_enforcement">Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property_infringement" title="Intellectual property infringement">Intellectual property infringement</a></div>
|
||
<p>Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with
|
||
respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation"
|
||
with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal
|
||
law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved,
|
||
jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.
|
||
</p><p>As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works
|
||
was a $600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global
|
||
trade.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-63">[63]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Patent_infringement">Patent infringement</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Patent infringement">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_infringement" title="Patent infringement">Patent infringement</a></div>
|
||
<p>Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a
|
||
patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope
|
||
of the patented invention or the extent of protection<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> is defined in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_(patent)" class="mw-redirect" title="Claim (patent)">claims</a> of the granted patent. There is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_harbor_(law)" title="Safe harbor (law)">safe harbor</a>
|
||
in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This
|
||
safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for
|
||
purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to
|
||
prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
|
||
In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law
|
||
(e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate
|
||
infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China,
|
||
France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Copyright_infringement">Copyright infringement</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Copyright infringement">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></div>
|
||
<p>Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_law#Scope" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright law">work</a>, or to make <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_work" title="Derivative work">derivative works</a>,
|
||
without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a
|
||
publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's
|
||
creator. It is often called "piracy".<sup id="cite_ref-Panethiere_p2_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panethiere_p2-67">[67]</a></sup>
|
||
While copyright is created the instant a work is fixed, generally the
|
||
copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the
|
||
copyright.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder.<sup id="cite_ref-Xuan_p211_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xuan_p211-68">[68]</a></sup> The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Counterfeiting_Trade_Agreement" title="Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement">ACTA trade agreement</a>,
|
||
signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the
|
||
EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add
|
||
criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and
|
||
trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to active police for
|
||
infringement.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musa_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musa-69">[69]</a></sup> There are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_dealing" title="Fair dealing">fair dealing</a> doctrine.
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trademark_infringement">Trademark infringement</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Trademark infringement">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark_infringement" title="Trademark infringement">Trademark infringement</a></div>
|
||
<p>Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusing_similarity" title="Confusing similarity">confusingly similar</a>
|
||
to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or
|
||
services which are identical or similar to the products or services of
|
||
the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection
|
||
without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal
|
||
advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil
|
||
litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-Bitton_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bitton-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Musa_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Musa-69">[69]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Trade_secret_misappropriation">Trade secret misappropriation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Trade secret misappropriation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret#Misappropriation" title="Trade secret">Trade secret § Misappropriation</a></div>
|
||
<p>Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other
|
||
intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are
|
||
secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are
|
||
publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected
|
||
under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Trade_Secrets_Act" title="Uniform Trade Secrets Act">Uniform Trade Secrets Act</a>. The United States also has federal law in the form of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Espionage_Act_of_1996" title="Economic Espionage Act of 1996">Economic Espionage Act of 1996</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831">§§ 1831</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1839">1839</a>),
|
||
which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal
|
||
crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of
|
||
activity. The first, <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1831#a">§ 1831(a)</a></span>, criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1832">§ 1832</a>,
|
||
criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The
|
||
statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equitable</a> right rather than a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as in the United States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticisms">Criticisms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Criticisms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of patents">Criticism of patents</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_copyright" title="Opposition to copyright">Opposition to copyright</a></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/220px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" decoding="async" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg/330px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg/440px-Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="511" width="220" height="152"></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pro_piracy_demonstration.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Demonstration in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in support of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">file sharing</a>, 2006.</div></div></div>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_(2).JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/220px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_2.JPG" decoding="async" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG/330px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG/440px-GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_%282%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="1398" width="220" height="218"></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GlamCamp_NY_Kippelboy_nina_Paley_(2).JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>"Copying is not theft!" badge with a character resembling <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Mouse" title="Mickey Mouse">Mickey Mouse</a> in reference to the in popular culture rationale behind the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_Bono_Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act">Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act</a> of 1998</div></div></div>
|
||
<h3><span id="The_term_.22intellectual_property.22"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="The_term_"intellectual_property"">The term "intellectual property"</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The term "intellectual property"">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<p>Criticism of the term <i>intellectual property</i> ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like <i>property</i> and <i>rights</i>
|
||
in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think
|
||
this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing
|
||
reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations;
|
||
and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often
|
||
unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a> founder <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a> argues that, although the term <i>intellectual property</i>
|
||
is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it
|
||
"systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and
|
||
is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the
|
||
term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which]
|
||
originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities,
|
||
have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that
|
||
it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of
|
||
limited physical things, likening them to "property rights".<sup id="cite_ref-mirage_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mirage-71">[71]</a></sup>
|
||
Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in
|
||
the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a
|
||
collective term. He argues that "to avoid spreading unnecessary bias and
|
||
confusion, it is best to adopt a firm policy not to speak or even think
|
||
in terms of 'intellectual property'."<sup id="cite_ref-words-to-avoid_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-words-to-avoid-72">[72]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Similarly, economists <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Boldrin</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">Levine</a>
|
||
prefer to use the term "intellectual monopoly" as a more appropriate
|
||
and clear definition of the concept, which they argue, is very
|
||
dissimilar from property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup>
|
||
They further argued that “stronger patents do little or nothing to
|
||
encourage innovation”, mainly explained by its tendency to create market
|
||
monopolies, thereby restricting further innovations and technology
|
||
transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual
|
||
rights, Stallman says that this claim does not live to the historical
|
||
intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a
|
||
censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing
|
||
press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered
|
||
with the freedom of average readers.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup> Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a>
|
||
to demonstrate that the law is meant to be an optional and experimental
|
||
bargain to temporarily trade property rights and free speech for
|
||
public, not private, benefits in the form of increased artistic
|
||
production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural
|
||
right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain
|
||
period of time".<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Law professor, writer and political activist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a>, along with many other <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a>
|
||
and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with
|
||
physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an
|
||
analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while
|
||
intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a
|
||
work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the
|
||
original).<sup id="cite_ref-lessigperpetual_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessigperpetual-77">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">no natural scarcity</a>
|
||
of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be
|
||
re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the
|
||
original. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Stephan Kinsella</a> has objected to <i>intellectual property</i> on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Entrepreneur and politician <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickard_Falkvinge" class="mw-redirect" title="Rickard Falkvinge">Rickard Falkvinge</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(programmer_subculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hacker (programmer subculture)">hacker</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Oliva" title="Alexandre Oliva">Alexandre Oliva</a> have independently compared George Orwell's fictional dialect <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a>
|
||
to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a
|
||
linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and
|
||
<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Rights_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Rights Management">DRM</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Alternative_terms">Alternative terms</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Alternative terms">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
|
||
<p>In <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_rights" title="Intellectual rights">intellectual rights</a>, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_rights_(copyright_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral rights (copyright law)">moral rights</a> and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term <i>intellectual rights</i> has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term <i>intellectual property</i> has increased.
|
||
</p><p>Alternative terms <i>monopolies on information</i> and <i>intellectual monopoly</i> have emerged among those who argue against the "property" or "intellect" or "rights" assumptions, notably <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a>. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backronym" title="Backronym">backronyms</a> <i>intellectual protectionism</i> and <i>intellectual poverty</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> whose initials are also <i>IP</i>, have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_digital_rights_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposition to digital rights management">digital restrictions management</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the
|
||
interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests)
|
||
be termed an <i>intellectual monopoly privilege</i> (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Alured_Faunce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Alured Faunce (page does not exist)">Thomas Alured Faunce</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Objections_to_overbroad_intellectual_property_laws">Objections to overbroad intellectual property laws</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Objections to overbroad intellectual property laws">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/220px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.png" decoding="async" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/330px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/440px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" width="220" height="219"></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_culture_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Free culture movement">free culture movement</a> champions the production of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">content</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free" title="Information wants to be free">that bears little or no restrictions</a>.</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_culture_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Free culture movement">free culture movement</a>, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_patent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical patent">pharmaceutical patents</a>), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup> and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever-expansive monopolies in the form of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_extension" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright extension">copyright extensions</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Software patents">software patents</a>, and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_method_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Business method patents">business method patents</a>. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_thickets" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent thickets">patent thickets</a> are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<blockquote><p>Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence
|
||
suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property
|
||
rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On
|
||
the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify
|
||
patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an
|
||
effective mechanism to encourage innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
|
||
<p>In support of that argument, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Baten" title="Jörg Baten">Jörg Baten</a>, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a></sup>
|
||
find historical evidence that especially compulsory licensing – which
|
||
allows governments to license patents without the consent of
|
||
patent-owners – encouraged invention in Germany in the early 20th
|
||
century by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low
|
||
pre-existing levels of competition.
|
||
</p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Drahos" title="Peter Drahos">Peter Drahos</a>
|
||
notes, "Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority
|
||
is granted to the few over resources on which many depend, the few gain
|
||
power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both
|
||
political and economic freedoms with in a society."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>13</span></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a>
|
||
(WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and
|
||
implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human
|
||
rights.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> In 2001 the UN <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights" title="Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights">Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights</a>
|
||
issued a document called "Human rights and intellectual property" that
|
||
argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals
|
||
when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to
|
||
serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and
|
||
conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems
|
||
fail to do so they risk infringing upon the human right to food and
|
||
health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup> In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted <i>The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization</i>
|
||
which argues that WIPO should "focus more on the needs of developing
|
||
countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an
|
||
end in itself".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Further along these lines, The ethical problems brought up by IP
|
||
rights are most pertinent when it is socially valuable goods like
|
||
life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of
|
||
IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of
|
||
production in order to recoup the costs of research and development,
|
||
the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost
|
||
of the product, in this case a life-saving drug.<sup id="cite_ref-Sonderholm_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonderholm-100">[100]</a></sup>
|
||
"An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to
|
||
the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to
|
||
predominately poor populations".<sup id="cite_ref-Sonderholm_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sonderholm-100">[100]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:<span>1108–9</span></sup>
|
||
</p><p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian">Libertarians</a> have <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">differing views on intellectual property</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Stephan Kinsella</a>, an <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalist">anarcho-capitalist</a> on the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-libertarian">right-wing of libertarianism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></sup> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_intellectual_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Criticism of intellectual property">argues against intellectual property</a> because allowing property rights in ideas and information creates <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">artificial scarcity</a> and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<blockquote><p>[I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright
|
||
guy—let's call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open
|
||
field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others
|
||
notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building
|
||
their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP
|
||
advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on
|
||
their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do
|
||
build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a
|
||
partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others,
|
||
due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already
|
||
owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies
|
||
in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and
|
||
groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the
|
||
foundation of all property rights.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
|
||
<p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on August 13, 1813:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<blockquote><p>"If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than
|
||
all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power
|
||
called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as
|
||
he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself
|
||
into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess
|
||
himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the
|
||
less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an
|
||
idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as
|
||
he who lights his <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">taper</a> at mine, receives light without darkening me."<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></sup></p></blockquote>
|
||
<p>In 2005 the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_encouragement_of_Arts,_Manufactures_%26_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce">RSA</a> launched the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelphi_Charter" title="Adelphi Charter">Adelphi Charter</a>, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Another aspect of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation
|
||
is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection
|
||
can only be obtained in 'original' works of authorship.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Expansion_in_nature_and_scope_of_intellectual_property_laws">Expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/220px-Tom_Bells_graph_showing_extension_of_U.png" decoding="async" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/330px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg/440px-Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="375" width="220" height="136"></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Bell%27s_graph_showing_extension_of_U.S._copyright_term_over_time.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Expansion of U.S. copyright law (Assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years)</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope.
|
||
</p><p>In addition, as scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new
|
||
industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology,
|
||
originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new
|
||
technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> (and in the United States, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breeders%27_rights" title="Plant breeders' rights">certain living organisms</a> have been patentable for over a century).<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in
|
||
relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial
|
||
extensions <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_Bono_Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act">in the United States</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_on_harmonising_the_term_of_copyright_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection">in Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lessigperpetual_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lessigperpetual-77">[77]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-td_confused_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-td_confused-111">[111]</a></sup> With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_works" class="mw-redirect" title="Orphan works">orphan works</a>
|
||
(copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a
|
||
problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies
|
||
around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped
|
||
to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade
|
||
organization, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_Picture_Association_of_America" title="Motion Picture Association of America">Motion Picture Association of America</a>.
|
||
In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and
|
||
in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong
|
||
protection of intellectual-property rights. In framing its
|
||
presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to
|
||
the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress's
|
||
awareness of the position of the United States as the world's largest
|
||
producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of
|
||
intellectual property.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup> These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hilllary_Rosen_testifies_on_Napster.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/220px-Hilllary_Rosen_testifies_on_Napster.jpg" decoding="async" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Hilllary_Rosen_testifies_on_Napster.jpg/330px-Hilllary_Rosen_testifies_on_Napster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Hilllary_Rosen_testifies_on_Napster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="373" data-file-height="211" width="220" height="124"></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hilllary_Rosen_testifies_on_Napster.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>RIAA representative <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilary_Rosen" title="Hilary Rosen">Hilary Rosen</a> testifies before the Senate Judiciary Committee on the future of digital music (July 11, 2000)</div></div></div>
|
||
<p>The growth of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, and particularly distributed search engines like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazaa" title="Kazaa">Kazaa</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnutella" title="Gnutella">Gnutella</a>, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_Industry_Association_of_America" title="Recording Industry Association of America">Recording Industry Association of America</a>, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>,
|
||
which the industry calls "piracy". The industry has had victories
|
||
against some services, including a highly publicized case against the
|
||
file-sharing company <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a>,
|
||
and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of
|
||
copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use
|
||
software-based <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a> tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act" title="Digital Millennium Copyright Act">Digital Millennium Copyright Act</a>
|
||
have been enacted that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of
|
||
software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent
|
||
provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have
|
||
existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example,
|
||
Article 6 and 7 the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_Copyright_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="EU Copyright Directive">Copyright Directive</a>. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_Access_Directive" title="Conditional Access Directive">Conditional Access Directive</a> of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> works, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright" title="Limitations and exceptions to copyright">limitations and exceptions to copyright</a>, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">copyleft</a> licenses, like <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_GPL_3" class="mw-redirect" title="GNU GPL 3">GNU GPL 3</a>, are designed to counter that.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup>
|
||
Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions like when it is
|
||
necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor's program,
|
||
or for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessibility" title="Accessibility">accessibility</a> reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal.
|
||
</p><p>In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by
|
||
international efforts to harmonise the definition of "trademark", as
|
||
exemplified by the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPS_Agreement" title="TRIPS Agreement">Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights</a>
|
||
ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had
|
||
been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to
|
||
TRIPs, any <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">sign</a>
|
||
which is "capable of distinguishing" the products or services of one
|
||
business from the products or services of another business is capable of
|
||
constituting a trademark.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Use_in_corporate_tax_avoidance">Use in corporate tax avoidance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Use in corporate tax avoidance">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_tax_haven" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate tax haven">Corporate tax haven</a></div>
|
||
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:19em; border-width: 1px; background-color: #c6dbf7;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r856303512">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:0.5em 0 0.8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{margin:0.5em auto 0.8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft p,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright p{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{background-color:#F9F9F9;text-align:center;font-size:larger;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:360px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{min-width:100%;margin:0 0 0.8em!important;float:none!important}}</style>
|
||
<div class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">Make no mistake: the
|
||
headline [tax] rate is not what triggers tax evasion and aggressive tax
|
||
planning. That comes from schemes that facilitate profit shifting.</div>
|
||
<p><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici" title="Pierre Moscovici">Pierre Moscovici</a><br>European Commissioner for Tax<br><i>Financial Times</i>, 11 March 2018<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup></cite>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:19em; border-width: 1px; background-color: #c6dbf7;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r856303512">
|
||
<div class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">"It is hard to imagine
|
||
any business, under the current [Irish] IP regime, which could not
|
||
generate substantial intangible assets under Irish GAAP that would be
|
||
eligible for relief under [the Irish] capital allowances [for intangible
|
||
assets scheme]." "This puts the attractive 2.5% Irish IP-tax rate
|
||
within reach of almost any global business that relocates to Ireland."</div>
|
||
<p><cite class="left-aligned" style="">KPMG, "Intellectual Property Tax", 4 December 2017<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup></cite>
|
||
</p>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<p>Intellectual property has become a core tool in corporate tax planning and tax avoidance.<sup id="cite_ref-fordam_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fordam-119">[119]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ucla_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucla-120">[120]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lux_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lux-121">[121]</a></sup> IP is a key component of the leading multinational tax avoidance <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting" title="Base erosion and profit shifting">base erosion and profit shifting</a> (BEPS) tools,<sup id="cite_ref-tilburg_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tilburg-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-zew_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zew-123">[123]</a></sup> which the OECD estimates costs $100–240 billion in lost annual tax revenues,<sup id="cite_ref-BEPS_Background_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEPS_Background-124">[124]</a></sup> and includes:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-roman"><li>Using IP <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royalty_payment" title="Royalty payment">royalty payment</a> schemes to profit shift income from higher-tax locations to lower-tax locations (such as the Facebook 2012 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Double Irish">double Irish</a> and the Microsoft 2015 <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Irish_arrangement#Replacement_by_single_malt" title="Double Irish arrangement">single malt</a> BEPS tax schemes);<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup></li><li>Using IP royalty payment schemes to overcome EU <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withholding_tax" title="Withholding tax">withholding tax</a> protections (such as the circa 2007 Google <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_sandwich" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch sandwich">dutch sandwich</a> BEPS tax scheme);<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></sup></li><li>Using advanced IP GAAP accounting to create <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intangible_assets" class="mw-redirect" title="Intangible assets">intangible assets</a> which can be expensed against taxation in certain IP-beneficial regimes (such as the Apple 2015 Irish <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Irish_arrangement#Backstop_of_capital_allowances" title="Double Irish arrangement">capital allowances for intangible assets</a> BEPS tax scheme);<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup></li><li>Using
|
||
advanced IP GAAP accounting to maximize the effect of corporate
|
||
relocations to low-tax regimes (used by Accenture in their 2009 U.S.
|
||
corporate <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">tax inversion</a> to Ireland).<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></sup></li></ol></div>
|
||
<p>In 2017-2018, both the U.S. and the EU Commission simultaneously decided to depart from the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_erosion_and_profit_shifting_(OECD_project)" title="Base erosion and profit shifting (OECD project)">OECD BEPS Project</a> timetable, which was set up in 2013 to combat IP BEPS tax tools like the above,<sup id="cite_ref-BEPS_Background_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BEPS_Background-124">[124]</a></sup> and launch their own anti-IP BEPS tax regimes:
|
||
</p>
|
||
<ul><li>U.S. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_Cuts_and_Jobs_Act_of_2017" title="Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017">Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017</a>, which has several anti-IP BEPS abuse tax regimes, including GILTI tax and the BEAT tax regimes.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></li>
|
||
<li>EU Commission 2018 Digital Services Tax, which is less advanced than
|
||
the U.S. TCJA, but does seek to override IP BEPS tools via a quasi-VAT.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></sup></li></ul>
|
||
<p>The departure of the U.S. and EU Commission from the OECD BEPS
|
||
Project process, is attributed to frustrations with the rise in IP as a
|
||
key BEPS tax tool, creating intangible assets, which are then turned
|
||
into royalty payment BEPS schemes (double Irish), and/or <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_allowance" title="Capital allowance">capital allowance</a>
|
||
BEPS schemes (capital allowances for intangibles). In contrast, the
|
||
OECD has spent years developing and advocating intellectual property as a
|
||
legal and a GAAP accounting concept.<sup id="cite_ref-un1_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-un1-137">[137]</a></sup>
|
||
</p><p>The EU Commission's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_illegal_State_aid_case_against_Apple_in_Ireland" title="EU illegal State aid case against Apple in Ireland">€13 billion fine</a> of Apple's pre 2015 double Irish IP BEPS tax scheme, is the largest corporate tax fine in history.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></sup>
|
||
</p>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_policy" title="Information policy">Information policy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property</a></li></ul>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
||
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
<div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
|
||
<ol class="references">
|
||
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4080">"Understanding Industrial Property"</a>. World Intellectual Property Organization<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Industrial+Property&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fpublications%2Fen%2Fdetails.jsp%3Fid%3D4080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r879151008">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span>
|
||
</li>
|
||
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/36/intellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property">"Intellectual, industrial and commercial property | Fact Sheets on the European Union"</a>. European Parliament<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual%2C+industrial+and+commercial+property+%7C+Fact+Sheets+on+the+European+Union&rft.pub=European+Parliament&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.europarl.europa.eu%2Ffactsheets%2Fen%2Fsheet%2F36%2Fintellectual-industrial-and-commercial-property&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
|
||
</li>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel1_e.htm">"What are intellectual property rights?"</a>. <i>World Trade Organization</i>. World Trade Organization<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Trade+Organization&rft.atitle=What+are+intellectual+property+rights%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wto.org%2Fenglish%2Ftratop_e%2Ftrips_e%2Fintel1_e.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Intellectual property", <i>Black's Law Dictionary</i>, 10th ed. (2014).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_909_2016.pdf">"Understanding Copyright and Related Rights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Intellectual Property Organization. p. 4<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fedocs%2Fpubdocs%2Fen%2Fwipo_pub_909_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf">"What is Intellectual Property?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Intellectual+Property%3F&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization+%28WIPO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fedocs%2Fpubdocs%2Fen%2Fintproperty%2F450%2Fwipo_pub_450.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_895_2016.pdf">"Understanding Industrial Property"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-12-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Industrial+Property&rft.pub=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization+%28WIPO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fedocs%2Fpubdocs%2Fen%2Fwipo_pub_895_2016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Lemley_2005-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lemley_2005_8-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lemley_2005_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (WIPO) by the United Nations." in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_A._Lemley" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark A. Lemley">Mark A. Lemley</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf"><i>Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.utexas.edu/law/journals/tlr/abstracts/83/83Lemley.pdf">Archived</a> 2009-02-26 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ann Marie Sullivan, Cultural Heritage & New Media: A Future for the Past, 15 J. MARSHALL REV. INTELL. PROP. L. 604 (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1392&context=ripl">https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1392&context=ripl</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_10-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200817_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008">Goldstein & Reese (2008)</a>, p. 17.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rod
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Falvey and Neil Foster (2006): “The Role of Intellectual Property
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Rights in Technology Transfer and Economic Growth”: Theory and Evidence,
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In cooperation with Olga Memedovic UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL
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DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION (UNIDO), available: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf">https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2009-04/Role_of_intellectual_property_rights_in_technology_transfer_and_economic_growth_0.pdf</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_12-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsteinReese200818–19_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008">Goldstein & Reese (2008)</a>, pp. 18–19.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Brad, Sherman; Lionel Bently (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=u2aMRA-eF1gC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56363-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56363-5">978-0-521-56363-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+modern+intellectual+property+law%3A+the+British+experience%2C+1760%E2%80%931911&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56363-5&rft.aulast=Brad&rft.aufirst=Sherman&rft.au=Lionel+Bently&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du2aMRA-eF1gC%26dq%3Dstatute%2Bof%2Banne%2Bcopyright%26lr%3D%26as_brr%3D3%26source%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_intellectual_property" class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=intellectual+property">"intellectual property"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=intellectual+property&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fsearch%3FsearchType%3Ddictionary%26q%3Dintellectual%2Bproperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span> (Citing <i>Monthly Review</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cMsvAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA290#v=onepage&q&f=false">vol. 41. p. 290</a> (1769): "What a niggard this Doctor is of his own, and how profuse he is of other people's intellectual property.")</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-_intellectual_property" class="citation"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=intellectual+property">"intellectual property"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=intellectual+property&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foed.com%2Fsearch%3FsearchType%3Ddictionary%26q%3Dintellectual%2Bproperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:90%; color:#555">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span> (Citing <i>Medical Repository Of Original Essays And Intelligence</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij9JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303">vol. 11. p. 303</a>
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(1808): "New-England Association in favour of Inventors and
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Discoverers, and particularly for the Protection of intellectual
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Property.")</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de67-18/verfassung67-i.htm">'Article 4 No. 6 of the Constitution of 1867 (German)'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark A. Lemley, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=582602">"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"</a> (Abstract); see Table 1: 4–5.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mossoff, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=863925">'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West.L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414</i></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130115040700/http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html">"Patent Archives – Ladas & Parry LLP"</a>. Ladas.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ladas.com/Patents/USPatentHistory.html">the original</a> on 2013-01-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patent+Archives+%E2%80%93+Ladas+%26+Parry+LLP&rft.pub=Ladas.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ladas.com%2FPatents%2FUSPatentHistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Mark_A._Lemley-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mark_A._Lemley_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Mark A. Lemley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlr83&div=30&g_sent=1&collection=journals">"Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding"</a>. Heinonline.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Property%2C+Intellectual+Property%2C+and+Free+Riding&rft.pub=Heinonline.org&rft.au=Mark+A.+Lemley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Ftlr83%26div%3D30%26g_sent%3D1%26collection%3Djournals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The
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Economist; (October 20th 2005): “The Liquidity of Innovation”; How the
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new market for intellectual property is changing the technology
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industry, available; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.economist.com/node/5015365">https://www.economist.com/node/5015365</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/copyright1.html">"Jewish Law – Articles ("Jewish Law and Copyright")"</a>. Jlaw.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Law+%E2%80%93+Articles+%28%22Jewish+Law+and+Copyright%22%29&rft.pub=Jlaw.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jlaw.com%2FArticles%2Fcopyright1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles
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Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing an Account of the Principal
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Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors, and Intended to Elucidate All
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the Important Points Connected with the Geography, History, Biography,
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Mythology, and Fine Arts of the Greek and Romans. Together with an
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Account of Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Tabular Values of the Same
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1273 (Harper & Brothers 1841). See also "The first patent law was
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enacted in Sybaris, a city in the South of Italy, before the Roman
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domination; (…) The law was mentioned by Atheneus, an ancient writer..."
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in Takenaka, Toshiko (2013). Intellectual Property in Common Law and
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Civil Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 419. (chapter by Mario Franzosi).</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm
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shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of
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International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm
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shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of
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International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Morin, Jean-Frédéric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">"Paradigm
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shift in the global IP regime: The agency of academics, Review of
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International Political Economy, vol 21-2, 2014, p.275"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paradigm+shift+in+the+global+IP+regime%3A+The+agency+of+academics%2C+Review+of+International+Political+Economy%2C+vol+21-2%2C+2014%2C+p.275&rft.aulast=Morin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Fsites%2Fchaire-epi.ulaval.ca%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmorin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Roisah, Kholis (2017-12-26). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pasca.unhas.ac.id/ojs/index.php/halrev/article/view/1153">"Understanding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement: From Hard and Soft Law Perspective"</a>. <i>Hasanuddin Law Review</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 277–289. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153">10.20956/halrev.v3i3.1153</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2442-9899">2442-9899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hasanuddin+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Understanding+Trade-Related+Aspects+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights+Agreement%3A+From+Hard+and+Soft+Law+Perspective&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-289&rft.date=2017-12-26&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20956%2Fhalrev.v3i3.1153&rft.issn=2442-9899&rft.aulast=Roisah&rft.aufirst=Kholis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpasca.unhas.ac.id%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fhalrev%2Farticle%2Fview%2F1153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">WTO (2013): Intellectual Property; Responding to least developed countries’ special needs in intellectual property; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm">https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/ldc_e.htm</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/treaties/text.jsp?file_id=288514">Article 1(2) of the Paris Convention</a>:
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"The protection of industrial property has as its object patents,
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utility models, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, trade
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names, indications of source or appellations of origin, and the
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repression of unfair competition."</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/index.html">"Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property"</a>. WIPO<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paris+Convention+for+the+Protection+of+Industrial+Property&rft.pub=WIPO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftreaties%2Fen%2Fip%2Fparis%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO_Handbook_Ch_2_32-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch2.pdf">WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use. Chapter 2: Fields of Intellectual Property Protection</a> WIPO 2008</span>
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<li id="cite_note-wipo.int-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wipo.int_33-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wipo.int_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">WIPO (2008); “What is Intellectual Property” Handbook: WIPO Publication No. 450(E) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1555-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-805-1555-0">978-92-805-1555-0</a>, available: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf">http://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/intproperty/450/wipo_pub_450.pdf</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Intellectual_Property_and_Information_Wealth:_Copyright_and_related_rights_34-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Peter K, Yu (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=tgK9BzcF5WgC&dq=statute+of+anne+copyright&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>Intellectual Property and Information Wealth: Copyright and related rights</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98883-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98883-8">978-0-275-98883-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Information+Wealth%3A+Copyright+and+related+rights&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98883-8&rft.au=Peter+K%2C+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtgK9BzcF5WgC%26dq%3Dstatute%2Bof%2Banne%2Bcopyright%26lr%3D%26as_brr%3D3%26source%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">World Intellectual Property Organisation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/66HD0x4jV?url=http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf">"Understanding Copyright and Related Rights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. WIPO. p. 8. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/909/wipo_pub_909.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-03-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved August 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Copyright+and+Related+Rights&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=WIPO&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organisation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ffreepublications%2Fen%2Fintproperty%2F909%2Fwipo_pub_909.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code class="cs1-code">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Art_and_copyright-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Art_and_copyright_36-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Simon, Stokes (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/books?id=h-XBqKIryaQC&dq=idea-expression+dichotomy&lr=&as_brr=3&source=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>Art and copyright</i></a>. Hart Publishing. pp. 48–49. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-225-9">978-1-84113-225-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+and+copyright&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-84113-225-9&rft.au=Simon%2C+Stokes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh-XBqKIryaQC%26dq%3Didea-expression%2Bdichotomy%26lr%3D%26as_brr%3D3%26source%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uspto.gov/trademarks/basics/definitions.jsp">"Trademark, Patent, or Copyright?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trademark%2C+Patent%2C+or+Copyright%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Ftrademarks%2Fbasics%2Fdefinitions.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/types/tm/t-about/t-whatis.htm">"A
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trade mark is a sign which can distinguish your goods and services from
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those of your competitors (you may refer to your trade mark as your
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"brand")"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+trade+mark+is+a+sign+which+can+distinguish+your+goods+and+services+from+those+of+your+competitors+%28you+may+refer+to+your+trade+mark+as+your+%22brand%22%29.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipo.gov.uk%2Ftypes%2Ftm%2Ft-about%2Ft-whatis.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patentamt.de/english/trade_marks/index.html">"Trade marks identify the goods and services of particular traders"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trade+marks+identify+the+goods+and+services+of+particular+traders.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patentamt.de%2Fenglish%2Ftrade_marks%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Merges, Robert P.; Menell, Peter S.; Lemley, Mark A. (2007). <i>Intellectual Property in the New Technological Age</i> (4th rev. ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer. p. 29. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7355-6989-8">978-0-7355-6989-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+in+the+New+Technological+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=4th+rev.&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7355-6989-8&rft.aulast=Merges&rft.aufirst=Robert+P.&rft.au=Menell%2C+Peter+S.&rft.au=Lemley%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Farah,
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Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo (March 15, 2014). "Desirability of
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Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role
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of Intellectual Property Rights". <i>Transnational Dispute Management</i>. <b>11</b> (2). <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network" title="Social Science Research Network">SSRN</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2472339">2472339</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transnational+Dispute+Management&rft.atitle=Desirability+of+Commodification+of+Intangible+Cultural+Heritage%3A+The+Unsatisfying+Role+of+Intellectual+Property+Rights&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2014-03-15&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2472339&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Paolo+Davide&rft.au=Tremolada%2C+Riccardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-MonoProf-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MonoProf_42-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uclan.ac.uk/schools/school_of_health/research_projects/files/health_innova_IPR_reform_report.pdf">Prudential Reasons for IPR Reform</a>, University of Melbourne, Doris Schroeder and Peter Singer, May 2009</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fairuse.stanford.edu/law/us-constitution/">"Copyright & Fair Use"</a>. <i>Stanford University Libraries</i>. 2013-04-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University+Libraries&rft.atitle=Copyright+%26+Fair+Use&rft.date=2013-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffairuse.stanford.edu%2Flaw%2Fus-constitution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-R000000-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-R000000_44-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_K._Levine" title="David K. Levine">Levine, David</a>; <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michele_Boldrin" title="Michele Boldrin">Michele Boldrin</a> (2008-09-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf"><i>Against intellectual monopoly</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87928-6">978-0-521-87928-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+intellectual+monopoly&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-09-07&rft.isbn=978-0-521-87928-6&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Michele+Boldrin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dklevine.com%2Fpapers%2Fimbookfinalall.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Bollyky, Thomas (10 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/04/why-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india/274847/">"Why Chemotherapy That Costs $70,000 in the U.S. Costs $2,500 in India"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. The Atlantic Monthly Group<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Why+Chemotherapy+That+Costs+%2470%2C000+in+the+U.S.+Costs+%242%2C500+in+India&rft.date=2013-04-10&rft.aulast=Bollyky&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fhealth%2Farchive%2F2013%2F04%2Fwhy-chemotherapy-that-costs-70-000-in-the-us-costs-2-500-in-india%2F274847%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Brassell, King, Martin, Kelvin (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipo.gov.uk/ipresearch-bankingip.pdf"><i>Banking on IP?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Newport, Wales: The Intellectual Property Office. p. 15. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-908908-86-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-908908-86-5">978-1-908908-86-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Banking+on+IP%3F&rft.place=Newport%2C+Wales&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=The+Intellectual+Property+Office&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-908908-86-5&rft.aulast=Brassell%2C+King&rft.aufirst=Martin%2C+Kelvin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipo.gov.uk%2Fipresearch-bankingip.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf">p. 3.</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120507132516/http://www.international.gc.ca/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/assets/pdfs/acta-crc_apr15-2011_eng.pdf">Archived</a> May 7, 2012, at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Robert J. Shapiro; Nam D. Pham. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonecon.com/docs/studies/0807_thevalueofip.pdf">"Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Sonecon.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economic+Effects+of+Intellectual+Property-Intensive+Manufacturing+in+the+United+States&rft.pub=Sonecon.com&rft.au=Robert+J.+Shapiro&rft.au=Nam+D.+Pham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sonecon.com%2Fdocs%2Fstudies%2F0807_thevalueofip.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Shapiro-Pham-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shapiro-Pham_50-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/">Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States</a>, Robert Shapiro and Nam Pham, July 2007 (archived on archive.org).</span>
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<li id="cite_note-WIPO:_Economic_Impact-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WIPO:_Economic_Impact_51-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.html">Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems</a>, WIPO, 2007.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml">"The Universal Declaration of Human Rights"</a>. United Nations<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Universal+Declaration+of+Human+Rights&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fudhr%2Findex.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">WIPO – The World Intellectual Property Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">the original</a> on October 22, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=WIPO+%E2%80%93+The+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftk%2Fen%2Fhr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Moore, Adam (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/intellectual-property/">"Intellectual Property"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Intellectual+Property&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fintellectual-property%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald
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V. Bettig. "Critical Perspectives on the History and Philosophy of
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Copyright" in Copyrighting Culture: The Political Economy of
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Intellectual Property, by Ronald V. Bettig. (Boulder, CO: Westview
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Press, 1996), 19–20</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard
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T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford
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Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp,
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vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.),
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415–416.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard
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T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford
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Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp,
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vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 416.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Spinello_2007-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spinello_2007_58-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spinello_2007_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Spinello, Richard A. (January 2007). "Intellectual property rights". <i>Library Hi Tech</i>. <b>25</b> (1): 12–22. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2F07378830710735821">10.1108/07378830710735821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Hi+Tech&rft.atitle=Intellectual+property+rights&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-22&rft.date=2007-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F07378830710735821&rft.aulast=Spinello&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard
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T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford
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Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp,
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vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 417.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard
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T. De George, "14. Intellectual Property Rights," in The Oxford
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||
Handbook of Business Ethics, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp,
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vol. 1, 1st ed. (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.), 418.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Law of Intellectual Property, Part 1 Chapter 1 Section 9 – Lysander Spooner</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRand1967" class="citation book"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand, Ayn</a> (1967) [1966]. <i>Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal</i> (paperback 2nd ed.). New York: Signet.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Capitalism%3A+The+Unknown+Ideal&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=paperback+2nd&rft.pub=Signet&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Rand&rft.aufirst=Ayn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Bitton-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_63-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bitton_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Miriam Bitton (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/backissues/v102/n1/1021_67.Bitton.pdf">Rethinking the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement's Criminal Copyright Enforcement Measures</a> The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 102(1):67-117</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epo.org/law-practice/legal-texts/html/epc/2013/e/ar69.html">Article 69</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Patent_Convention" title="European Patent Convention">EPC</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pradip K. Sahu and Shannon Mrksich, Ph.D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brinkshofer.com/resource_center/85-the-hatch-waxman-act-research-exempt-from-patent-infringement">The Hatch-Waxman Act: When Is Research Exempt from Patent Infringement?</a> ABA-IPL Newsletter 22(4) Summer 2004</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew L. Cutler (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF">International Patent Litigation Survey: A Survey of the Characteristics of Patent Litigation in 17 International Jurisdictions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922062127/http://blog.hdp.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/60549706_1.PDF">Archived</a> 2013-09-22 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Panethiere_p2-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Panethiere_p2_67-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Panethiere, Darrell (July–September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080816063513/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf">"The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO e-Copyright Bulletin. p. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/28696/11513329261panethiere_en.pdf/panethiere_en.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-08-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Persistence+of+Piracy%3A+The+Consequences+for+Creativity%2C+for+Culture%2C+and+for+Sustainable+Development&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=UNESCO+e-Copyright+Bulletin&rft.date=2005-07%2F2005-09&rft.aulast=Panethiere&rft.aufirst=Darrell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fculture%2Fen%2Ffiles%2F28696%2F11513329261panethiere_en.pdf%2Fpanethiere_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Xuan_p211-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Xuan_p211_68-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Correa, Carlos Maria; Li, Xuan (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=bN3o1uwpKF4C&dq=copyright+infringement+international+acta"><i>Intellectual property enforcement: international perspectives</i></a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 211. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84844-663-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84844-663-2">978-1-84844-663-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+property+enforcement%3A+international+perspectives&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84844-663-2&rft.aulast=Correa&rft.aufirst=Carlos+Maria&rft.au=Li%2C+Xuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DbN3o1uwpKF4C%26dq%3Dcopyright%2Binfringement%2Binternational%2Bacta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Musa-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Musa_69-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Musa_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Irina D. Manta Spring 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/articles/pdf/v24/24HarvJLTech469.pdf">The Puzzle of Criminal Sanctions for Intellectual Property Infringement</a> Harvard Journal of Law & Technology 24(2):469-518</span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Masnick" class="mw-redirect" title="Mike Masnick">Mike Masnick</a> (6 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140813003301/https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml">"If Intellectual Property Is Neither Intellectual, Nor Property, What Is It?"</a>. <i><span></span></i>techdirt.com<i><span></span></i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techdirt" title="Techdirt">Techdirt</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techdirt.com/articles/20080306/003240458/if-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml">the original</a> on 13 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%27%27techdirt.com%27%27&rft.atitle=If+Intellectual+Property+Is+Neither+Intellectual%2C+Nor+Property%2C+What+Is+It%3F&rft.date=2008-03-06&rft.au=Mike+Masnick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techdirt.com%2Farticles%2F20080306%2F003240458%2Fif-intellectual-property-is-neither-intellectual-property-what-is-it.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-mirage-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mirage_71-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Richard M. Stallman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml">"Did You Say 'Intellectual Property'? It's a Seductive Mirage"</a>. Free Software Foundation, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Did+You+Say+%27Intellectual+Property%27%3F+It%27s+a+Seductive+Mirage&rft.pub=Free+Software+Foundation%2C+Inc.&rft.au=Richard+M.+Stallman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fnot-ipr.xhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-words-to-avoid-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-words-to-avoid_72-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Richard M. Stallman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.en.html#IntellectualProperty">"Words to Avoid (or Use with Care) Because They Are Loaded or Confusing"</a>. The GNU Project<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Words+to+Avoid+%28or+Use+with+Care%29+Because+They+Are+Loaded+or+Confusing&rft.pub=The+GNU+Project&rft.au=Richard+M.+Stallman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fwords-to-avoid.en.html%23IntellectualProperty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boldrin, Michele, and David K. Levine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/against.htm">Against intellectual monopoly</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michele
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Boldrin and David K. Levine (2009): “Intellectual Property Rights and
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Economic Growth in the Long-Run”; A model Discovery, available; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf">http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/papers/aea_pp09.pdf</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Stallman, Richard</a> (19 April 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150302072256/http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html">"copyright and globalization in the age of computer networks"</a>. <i>mit.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/comm-forum/forums/copyright.html">the original</a> on 2 March 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mit.edu&rft.atitle=copyright+and+globalization+in+the+age+of+computer+networks&rft.date=2001-04-19&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fcomm-forum%2Fforums%2Fcopyright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Stallman, Richard</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905075652/https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/misinterpreting-copyright.html">"Misinterpreting Copyright"</a>. <i><span></span></i>gnu.org<i><span></span></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/misinterpreting-copyright.html">the original</a> on 5 September 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%27%27gnu.org%27%27&rft.atitle=Misinterpreting+Copyright&rft.aulast=Stallman&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fphilosophy%2Fmisinterpreting-copyright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-lessigperpetual-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lessigperpetual_77-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lessigperpetual_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.lessig.org/index.php/Against_perpetual_copyright">"Against perpetual copyright"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Against+perpetual+copyright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwiki.lessig.org%2Findex.php%2FAgainst_perpetual_copyright&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cory_Doctorow" title="Cory Doctorow">Doctorow, Cory</a> (2008-02-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/21/intellectual.property">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">"</span>Intellectual property" is a silly euphemism"</a>. <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%22Intellectual+property%22+is+a+silly+euphemism&rft.date=2008-02-21&rft.aulast=Doctorow&rft.aufirst=Cory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2008%2Ffeb%2F21%2Fintellectual.property&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf">Against Intellectual Property</a> Journal of Libertarian Studies 15(2):1–53</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a> (14 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140604193406/http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/">"Language Matters: Framing The Copyright Monopoly So We Can Keep Our Liberties"</a>. <i><span></span></i>torrentfreak.com<i><span></span></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://torrentfreak.com/language-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714/">the original</a> on 4 June 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%27%27torrentfreak.com%27%27&rft.atitle=Language+Matters%3A+Framing+The+Copyright+Monopoly+So+We+Can+Keep+Our+Liberties&rft.date=2013-07-14&rft.au=Rick+Falkvinge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftorrentfreak.com%2Flanguage-matters-framing-the-copyright-monopoly-so-we-can-keep-our-liberties-130714%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Oliva" title="Alexandre Oliva">Alexandre Oliva</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fsfla.org/~lxoliva/fsfla/1984+30.en.pdf">"1984+30: GNU speech to defeat e-newspeak"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1984%2B30%3A+GNU+speech+to+defeat+e-newspeak&rft.au=Alexandre+Oliva&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsfla.org%2F~lxoliva%2Ffsfla%2F1984%2B30.en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella for Ludwig von Mises Institute blog, January 6, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.mises.org/15240/intellectual-poverty/">Intellectual Poverty</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://drm.info/">Official drm.info site</a> run by the Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE)</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.defectivebydesign.org/what_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management">"What is DRM?"</a>. Defective by Design<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+DRM%3F&rft.pub=Defective+by+Design&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.defectivebydesign.org%2Fwhat_is_drm_digital_restrictions_management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birgitte
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Andersen. "'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly
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Privilege: Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?" CONFERENCIA
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INTERNACIONAL SOBRE SISTEMAS DE INOVAÇÃO E ESTRATÉGIAS DE
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DESENVOLVIMENTO PARA O TERCEIRO MILÊNIO. Nov 2003</span>
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<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">"Balancing intellectual monopoly privileges and the need for essential medicines"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>3</b>: 4. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4">10.1186/1744-8603-3-4</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1904211">1904211</a></span>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17565684">17565684</a>. <q>Balancing
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the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs) (which the
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third author considers are more accurately described as intellectual
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monopoly privileges (IMPs)) of pharmaceutical companies, with the need
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to ensure access to essential medicines in developing countries is one
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of the most pressing challenges facing international policy makers
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today.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=Balancing+intellectual+monopoly+privileges+and+the+need+for+essential+medicines&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2007&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17565684&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1744-8603-3-4&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Sorenson%2C+C&rft.au=Faunce%2C+TA&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1904211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Birgitte Andersen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://redesist.ie.ufrj.br/globelics/pdfs/GLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf">'Intellectual Property Right' Or 'Intellectual Monopoly Privilege': Which One Should Patent Analysts Focus On?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130502015453/http://redesist.ie.ufrj.br/globelics/pdfs/GLOBELICS_0050_Andersen.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-05-02 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Conferência Internacional Sobre Sistemas De Inovação E Estratégias De Desenvolvimento Para O Terceiro Milênio. Nov. 2003</span>
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<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Martin, G; Sorenson, C; Faunce, TA (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalizationandhealth.com/content/3/1/4">"Editorial: Balancing the need to protect the intellectual property rights (IPRs)"</a>. <i>Globalization and Health</i>. <b>3</b>: 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globalization+and+Health&rft.atitle=Editorial%3A+Balancing+the+need+to+protect+the+intellectual+property+rights+%28IPRs%29&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Sorenson%2C+C&rft.au=Faunce%2C+TA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalizationandhealth.com%2Fcontent%2F3%2F1%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">On patents - <cite class="citation web">Daniel B. Ravicher (August 6, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0chez_Jf5A">"Protecting Freedom In The Patent System: The Public Patent Foundation's Mission and Activities"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protecting+Freedom+In+The+Patent+System%3A+The+Public+Patent+Foundation%27s+Mission+and+Activities&rft.date=2008-08-06&rft.au=Daniel+B.+Ravicher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dd0chez_Jf5A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Stiglitz, Joseph</a> (October 13, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UzhD7KVs-R4#t=16m05s">"Authors@Google: Joseph Stiglitz – Making Globalization Work"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Authors%40Google%3A+Joseph+Stiglitz+%E2%80%93+Making+Globalization+Work.&rft.date=2006-10-13&rft.aulast=Stiglitz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DUzhD7KVs-R4%23t%3D16m05s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/11/stallmans-got-company-researcher-wants-nanotech-patent-moratorium/">Stallman's got company: Researcher wants nanotech patent moratorium</a> – Ars Technica</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium">Freeze on nanotechnology patents proposed to help grow the sector</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140302113908/http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2012-11/23/professor-seeks-nanotech-patent-moratorium">Archived</a> 2014-03-02 at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>- Wired UK 11-23-2012</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moser, Petra. 2013. "Patents and Innovation: Evidence from Economic History." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1): 23-44.</span>
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</li>
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<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Baten,
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Jörg; Bianchi, Nicola; Moser, Petra (2017). "Compulsory licensing and
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innovation–Historical evidence from German patents after WWI". <i>Journal of Development Economics</i>. <b>126</b>: 231–242.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Economics&rft.atitle=Compulsory+licensing+and+innovation%E2%80%93Historical+evidence+from+German+patents+after+WWI&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=231-242&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B6rg&rft.au=Bianchi%2C+Nicola&rft.au=Moser%2C+Petra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Drahos and John Braithwaite. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/books/Information%20Feudalism.pdf">Information Feudalism: Who Owns the Knowledge Economy?</a>, Earthscan 2002</span>
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<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111022125749/http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">"Human Rights and Intellectual Property: An Overview"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/">the original</a> on October 22, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+An+Overview&rft.au=WIPO+%E2%80%93+World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Ftk%2Fen%2Fhr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Staff, UN Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights. Geneva, November 12–30, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/docs/statements/E.C.12.2001.15HRIntel-property.pdf">Human rights and intellectual property</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Chapman, Audrey R. (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jiel.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/4/861.short">"The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection"</a>. <i>Journal of International Economic Law</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 861–882. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjiel%2F5.4.861">10.1093/jiel/5.4.861</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 9,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Economic+Law&rft.atitle=The+Human+Rights+Implications+of+Intellectual+Property+Protection&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=861-882&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjiel%2F5.4.861&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Audrey+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjiel.oxfordjournals.org%2Fcontent%2F5%2F4%2F861.short&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html"><i>The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization</i></a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Sonderholm-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderholm_100-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sonderholm_100-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jorn Sonderholm (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-9991.2010.00358.x/abstract">Ethical Issues Surrounding Intellectual Property Rights</a>, Philosophy Compass 5(12): 1107–1115.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephan Kinsella, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180415041048/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2004/01/stephan-kinsella/what-it-means-to-be-an-anarcho-capitalist/">"What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist"</a>, "LewRockwell.com", published 2004-01-20, archived 2018-04-15. Retrieved 2018-08-04</span>
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<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/books/against.pdf">N. Stephan Kinsella, <i>Against Intellectual property</i></a> (2008), p. 44.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_8_8s12.html">Thomas Jefferson, <i>Letter to Isaac McPherson</i></a> (August 13, 1813)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyle, James (14 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/comment/story/0,,1591467,00.html">Protecting the public domain</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bennet,
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Philip (2009). "Native Americans and Intellectual Property: the
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Necessity of Implementing Collective Ideals into Current United States
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Intellectual Property Laws". <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network" title="Social Science Research Network">SSRN</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1498783">1498783</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Native+Americans+and+Intellectual+Property%3A+the+Necessity+of+Implementing+Collective+Ideals+into+Current+United+States+Intellectual+Property+Laws&rft.date=2009&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D1498783&rft.aulast=Bennet&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Council for Responsible Genetics, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomics/crg.html">DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms.</a>. Retrieved 2008.12.18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plant Patents <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/plant/">USPTO.gov</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>E.g.</i>, the U.S. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Term_Extension_Act" title="Copyright Term Extension Act">Copyright Term Extension Act</a>, Pub.L. 105–298.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Helprin, Op-ed: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/opinion/20helprin.html">A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn't Its Copyright?</a> <i>The New York Times</i>, May 20, 2007.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/01-618.ZS.html">Eldred v. Ashcroft, 537 U. S. 186 (2003)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-td_confused-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-td_confused_111-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Masnick, Mike (May 21, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20070521/015928.shtml">"Arguing For Infinite Copyright... Using Copied Ideas And A Near Total Misunderstanding Of Property"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techdirt" title="Techdirt">techdirt</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arguing+For+Infinite+Copyright...+Using+Copied+Ideas+And+A+Near+Total+Misunderstanding+Of+Property&rft.pub=techdirt&rft.date=2007-05-21&rft.aulast=Masnick&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techdirt.com%2Farticles%2F20070521%2F015928.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Library of Congress Copyright Office <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copyright.gov/fedreg/2012/77fr64555.pdf">Docket No. 2012–12 Orphan Works and Mass Digitization</a>
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Federal Register, Vol. 77, No. 204. Monday, October 22, 2012. Notices.
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PP 64555–64561; see p 64555 first column for international efforts and
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3rd column for description of the problem.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennis Wharton, "MPAA's Rebel With Cause Fights for Copyright Coin," Variety (August 3, 1992), Vol. 348, No. 2, p. 18.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William W. Fisher III, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/property99/history.html">The Growth of Intellectual Property:A History of the Ownership of Ideas in the United States</a> Eigentumskulturen im Vergleich (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1999)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Smith, Brett (2007–2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gnu.org/licenses/quick-guide-gplv3.en.html">"A Quick Guide to GPLv3"</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Quick+Guide+to+GPLv3&rft.pub=Free+Software+Foundation&rft.date=2007%2F2010&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Flicenses%2Fquick-guide-gplv3.en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Katherine Beckman and Christa Pletcher (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ipjournal.law.wfu.edu/files/2010/10/article.10.215.pdf">Expanding Global Trademark Regulation</a> Wake Forest Intellectual Property Law Journal 10(2): 215–239</span>
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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44">"Multinationals pay lower taxes than a decade ago"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i>. 11 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Multinationals+pay+lower+taxes+than+a+decade+ago&rft.date=2018-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F2b356956-17fc-11e8-9376-4a6390addb44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kpmgpublications.ie/publication/intellectual-property-tax/">"Intellectual Property Tax"</a>. KPMG. 4 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+Tax&rft.pub=KPMG&rft.date=2017-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kpmgpublications.ie%2Fpublication%2Fintellectual-property-tax%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-fordam-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fordam_119-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordhamiplj.org/2016/08/30/ip-tax-avoidance-ireland/">"Intellectual Property and Tax Avoidance in Ireland"</a>. Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal. 30 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+and+Tax+Avoidance+in+Ireland&rft.pub=Fordham+Intellectual+Property%2C+Media+%26+Entertainment+Law+Journal&rft.date=2016-08-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordhamiplj.org%2F2016%2F08%2F30%2Fip-tax-avoidance-ireland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ucla-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ucla_120-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Intellectual property (IP) has become the leading tax-avoidance vehicle.<cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/62-1-1.pdf">"Intellectual Property Law Solutions to Tax Avoidance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UCLA Law Review. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+Law+Solutions+to+Tax+Avoidance&rft.pub=UCLA+Law+Review&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uclalawreview.org%2Fpdf%2F62-1-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-lux-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lux_121-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/business/2015/08/27/patently-problematic">"Patently problematic"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Patently+problematic&rft.date=2015-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fbusiness%2F2015%2F08%2F27%2Fpatently-problematic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-tilburg-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tilburg_122-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=143915">"Intellectual Property Tax Planning in the light of Base Erosion and Profit Shifting"</a>. University of Tilburg. June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Intellectual+Property+Tax+Planning+in+the+light+of+Base+Erosion+and+Profit+Shifting&rft.pub=University+of+Tilburg&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farno.uvt.nl%2Fshow.cgi%3Ffid%3D143915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-zew-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zew_123-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.zew.de/pub/zew-docs/dp/dp13078.pdf">"Profit Shifting and "Aggressive" Tax Planning by Multinational Firms"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Centre for European Economic Research (ZEW). October 2013. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Profit+Shifting+and+%22Aggressive%22+Tax+Planning+by+Multinational+Firms&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Centre+for+European+Economic+Research+%28ZEW%29&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.zew.de%2Fpub%2Fzew-docs%2Fdp%2Fdp13078.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-BEPS_Background-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BEPS_Background_124-0"><span class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BEPS_Background_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/tax/beps/background-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf">"BEPS Project Background Brief"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. OECD. January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BEPS+Project+Background+Brief&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2017-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Ftax%2Fbeps%2Fbackground-brief-inclusive-framework-for-beps-implementation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/content/ca64f938-5dc0-11e3-95bd-00144feabdc0">"<span class="cs1-kern-left">'</span>Double Irish' limits Facebook's tax bill to €1.9m in Ireland"</a>. <i>Financial Times</i>. 5 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=%27Double+Irish%27+limits+Facebook%27s+tax+bill+to+%E2%82%AC1.9m+in+Ireland&rft.date=2013-12-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2Fca64f938-5dc0-11e3-95bd-00144feabdc0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rte.ie/news/business/2017/1114/919979-multinationals-using-new-arrangement-to-reduce-tax-bill/">"Multinationals replacing 'Double Irish' with new tax avoidance scheme"</a>. Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 14 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Multinationals+replacing+%27Double+Irish%27+with+new+tax+avoidance+scheme&rft.date=2017-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rte.ie%2Fnews%2Fbusiness%2F2017%2F1114%2F919979-multinationals-using-new-arrangement-to-reduce-tax-bill%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-02/google-s-dutch-sandwich-shielded-16-billion-euros-from-tax">"Google's 'Dutch Sandwich' Shielded 16 Billion Euros From Tax"</a>. Bloomberg. 2 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Google%27s+%27Dutch+Sandwich%27+Shielded+16+Billion+Euros+From+Tax&rft.pub=Bloomberg&rft.date=2018-01-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2018-01-02%2Fgoogle-s-dutch-sandwich-shielded-16-billion-euros-from-tax&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://economic-incentives.blogspot.ie/2018/01/what-apple-did-next.html">"What Apple did next"</a>. Seamus Coffey, University College Cork. 24 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Apple+did+next&rft.pub=Seamus+Coffey%2C+University+College+Cork&rft.date=2014-01-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconomic-incentives.blogspot.ie%2F2018%2F01%2Fwhat-apple-did-next.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cfr.org/blog/tax-avoidance-and-irish-balance-payments">"Tax Avoidance and the Irish Balance of Payments"</a>. Council on Foreign Relations. 25 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tax+Avoidance+and+the+Irish+Balance+of+Payments&rft.pub=Council+on+Foreign+Relations&rft.date=2018-04-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cfr.org%2Fblog%2Ftax-avoidance-and-irish-balance-payments&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/firm-gets-tax-relief-on-7bn-rights-211760.html">"Accenture gets tax relief on $7bn of IP rights: Accenture"</a>. <i>Irish Examiner</i>. 24 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irish+Examiner&rft.atitle=Accenture+gets+tax+relief+on+%247bn+of+IP+rights%3A+Accenture&rft.date=2012-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishexaminer.com%2Fbusiness%2Ffirm-gets-tax-relief-on-7bn-rights-211760.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taxfoundation.org/treatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act/">"A Hybrid Approach: The Treatment of Foreign Profits under the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act"</a>. Tax Foundation. 3 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Hybrid+Approach%3A+The+Treatment+of+Foreign+Profits+under+the+Tax+Cuts+and+Jobs+Act&rft.pub=Tax+Foundation&rft.date=2018-05-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaxfoundation.org%2Ftreatment-foreign-profits-tax-cuts-jobs-act%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/trump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866">"Trump's US tax reform a significant challenge for Ireland"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 30 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Trump%27s+US+tax+reform+a+significant+challenge+for+Ireland&rft.date=2017-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Ftrump-s-us-tax-reform-a-significant-challenge-for-ireland-1.3310866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/donald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149">"Donald Trump singles out Ireland in tax speech"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 29 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Donald+Trump+singles+out+Ireland+in+tax+speech&rft.date=2017-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149%3Fmode%3Dsample%26auth-failed%3D1%26pw-origin%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.irishtimes.com%252Fbusiness%252Fdonald-trump-singles-out-ireland-in-tax-speech-1.3310149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/why-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080">"Why Ireland faces a fight on the corporate tax front"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. 14 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Why+Ireland+faces+a+fight+on+the+corporate+tax+front&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fwhy-ireland-faces-a-fight-on-the-corporate-tax-front-1.3426080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.ie/business/irish/eu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html">"EU digital levy could hit tech FDI and tax revenue here"</a>. <i>Irish Independent</i>. 21 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irish+Independent&rft.atitle=EU+digital+levy+could+hit+tech+FDI+and+tax+revenue+here&rft.date=2018-03-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Fbusiness%2Firish%2Feu-digital-levy-could-hit-tech-fdi-and-tax-revenue-here-36725944.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thejournal.ie/eu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018/">"What the EU's new taxes on the tech giants mean - and how they would hurt Ireland"</a>. thejournal.ie. 24 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+the+EU%27s+new+taxes+on+the+tech+giants+mean+-+and+how+they+would+hurt+Ireland&rft.pub=thejournal.ie&rft.date=2018-03-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thejournal.ie%2Feu-digital-tax-ireland-2-2-3918628-Mar2018%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-un1-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-un1_137-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taxjustice.net/2017/09/11/new-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps/">"New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure"</a>. Tax Justice Network. 11 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+UN+tax+handbook%3A+Lower-income+countries+vs+OECD+BEPS+failure&rft.pub=Tax+Justice+Network&rft.date=2017-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taxjustice.net%2F2017%2F09%2F11%2Fnew-un-tax-handbook-sets-lower-income-countries-oecd-beps%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Foroohar, Rana (30 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://time.com/4472500/apple-eu-irish-tax-bill/">"Apple vs. the E.U. Is the Biggest Tax Battle in History"</a>. <i>Time</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Apple+vs.+the+E.U.+Is+the+Biggest+Tax+Battle+in+History&rft.date=2016-08-30&rft.aulast=Foroohar&rft.aufirst=Rana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F4472500%2Fapple-eu-irish-tax-bill%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></span>
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</ol></div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r853264625">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
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<ul><li>Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the
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Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", WIPO
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Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20121212232107/http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/intproperty/834/index.html">wipo.int</a></li>
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<li>Bettig, R. V. (1996). Critical Perspectives on the History and
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Philosophy of Copyright. In R. V. Bettig, Copyrighting Culture: The
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Political Economy of Intellectual Property. (pp. 9–32). Boulder,
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CO: Westview Press.</li>
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<li>Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/papers/imbookfinalall.pdf">dkleving.com</a></li>
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<li>Hahn, Robert W., <i>Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology</i>, AEI Press, March 2005.</li>
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<li>Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger
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Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer?
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Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper 11516.
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July 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122150353/http://weblog.ipcentral.info/IPRs%20%26%20Tech%20Trans.pdf">weblog.ipcentral.info</a></li>
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<li>Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071221052053/http://rebirthoffreedom.org/freedom/property/intellectual-ownership/">rebithofffreedom.org</a></li>
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<li>De George, Richard T. "14. Intellectual Property Rights." In <i>The Oxford Handbook of Business Ethics</i>, by George G. Brenkert and Tom L. Beauchamp, 1:408-439. 1st ed. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, n.d.</li>
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<li>Farah, Paolo and Cima, Elena. "China's Participation in the World
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Trade Organization: Trade in Goods, Services, Intellectual Property
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Rights and Transparency Issues" in Aurelio Lopez-Tarruella Martinez
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(ed.), <i title="Spanish language text" lang="es">El comercio con China. Oportunidades empresariales, incertidumbres jurídicas</i>, Tirant lo Blanch, Valencia (Spain) 2010, pp. 85–121. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8456-981-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-8456-981-7">978-84-8456-981-7</a>. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=1527992">SSRN.com</a></li>
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<li>Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Desirability of
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Commodification of Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Unsatisfying Role
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of IPRs, in TRANSNATIONAL DISPUTE MANAGEMENT, Special Issues "The New
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Frontiers of Cultural Law: Intangible Heritage Disputes", Volume 11,
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Issue 2, March 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1875-4120">1875-4120</a> Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2472339">SSRN.com</a></li>
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<li>Farah, Paolo Davide, Tremolada Riccardo, Intellectual Property
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Rights, Human Rights and Intangible Cultural Heritage, Journal of
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Intellectual Property Law, Issue 2, Part I, June 2014, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0035-614X">0035-614X</a>, Giuffre, pp. 21–47. Available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2472388">SSRN.com</a></li>
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<li><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinReese2008" class="citation book">Goldstein, Paul; Reese, R. Anthony (2008). <i>Copyright, Patent, Trademark and Related State Doctrines: Cases and Materials on the Law of Intellectual Property</i> (6th ed.). New York: Foundation Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-139-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59941-139-2">978-1-59941-139-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright%2C+Patent%2C+Trademark+and+Related+State+Doctrines%3A+Cases+and+Materials+on+the+Law+of+Intellectual+Property&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Foundation+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59941-139-2&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Reese%2C+R.+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Gowers" title="Andrew Gowers">Gowers, Andrew</a>. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090407093401/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/pbr06_gowers_report_755.pdf">hm-treasury.gov.uk</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-11-840483-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-11-840483-9">978-0-11-840483-9</a>.</li>
|
||
<li>Greenhalgh, C. & Rogers M., (2010). <i>Innovation, Intellectual Property, and Economic Growth.</i> New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephan_Kinsella" title="Stephan Kinsella">Kinsella, Stephan</a>. "Against Intellectual Property". <i>Journal of Libertarian Studies</i> 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1–53. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf">mises.org</a></li>
|
||
<li>Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University. April 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dklevine.com/archive/refs4122247000000000481.pdf">dklevine.com</a></li>
|
||
<li>Lee, Richmond K. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philstar.com/business/320465/scope-and-interplay-ip-rights">Scope and Interplay of IP Rights</a></i> Accralaw offices.</li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lessig, Lawrence</a>.
|
||
"Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down
|
||
Culture and Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf">free-culture.cc</a>.</li>
|
||
<li>Lindberg, Van. <i>Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code</i>. O'Reilly Books, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-596-51796-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-596-51796-3">0-596-51796-3</a> | <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-51796-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-596-51796-0">978-0-596-51796-0</a></li>
|
||
<li>Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". <i>Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law</i>, Vol. 32, 471. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081223230716/http://www.law.case.edu/student_life/">journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf law.case.edu</a></li>
|
||
<li>Mazzone, Jason. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=787244">Copyfraud</a>". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. <i>New York University Law Review</i> 81 (2006): 1027. (Abstract.)</li>
|
||
<li>Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. <i>Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright</i>. 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-23519-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-23519-1">0-314-23519-1</a>.</li>
|
||
<li>Moore, Adam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/intellectual-property">"Intellectual Property"</a>, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),</li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/sites/chaire-epi.ulaval.ca/files/publications/morin_2014_paradigm_shift_agency_of_academics.pdf">Morin,
|
||
Jean-Frédéric, Paradigm Shift in the Global IP Regime: The Agency of
|
||
Academics, Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21(2), 2014,
|
||
p. 275-309.</a></li>
|
||
<li>Mossoff, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID863925_code345663.pdf">'Rethinking the Development of Patents: An Intellectual History, 1550–1800,'</a> Hastings Law Journal, Vol. 52, p. 1255, 2001</li>
|
||
<li>Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091009142207/http://www.stockholm-network.org/downloads/publications/Developing_Countries_and_Intellectual_Property_Rights_Myth_and_Reality_6.pdf">stockholm-network.org</a></li>
|
||
<li>Perelman, Michael. <i>Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property and The Corporate Confiscation of Creativity</i>. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.</li>
|
||
<li>Rand, Ayn. "Patents and Copyrights" in Ayn Rand, ed. 'Capitalism:
|
||
The Unknown Ideal,' New York: New American Library, 1966,
|
||
pp. 126–128</li>
|
||
<li>Reisman, George. 'Capitalism: A Complete & Integrated
|
||
Understanding of the Nature & Value of Human Economic Life,' Ottawa,
|
||
Illinois: 1996, pp. 388–389</li>
|
||
<li>Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. <i>Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks</i>. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-06599-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-06599-7">0-314-06599-7</a>.</li>
|
||
<li>Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and
|
||
Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and
|
||
Developing Countries". July 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226035349/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~pschneid/images/Schneider_JDEJuly2004.pdf">mtholyoke.edu</a></li>
|
||
<li>Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual
|
||
Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195041/http://www.the-value-of-ip.org/">the-value-of.ip.org</a>. Retrieved 2008-04-09.</li>
|
||
<li>Spooner, Lysander. "The Law of Intellectual Property; or An Essay
|
||
on the Right of Authors and Inventors to a Perpetual Property in their
|
||
Ideas". Boston: Bela Marsh, 1855.</li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siva_Vaidhyanathan" title="Siva Vaidhyanathan">Vaidhyanathan, Siva</a>. <i>The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System</i>. New York: Basic Books, 2004.</li>
|
||
<li><cite class="citation book">Burk, Dan L. & Mark A. Lemley (2009). <i>The Patent Crisis and How the Courts Can Solve It</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08061-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08061-1">978-0-226-08061-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Patent+Crisis+and+How+the+Courts+Can+Solve+It&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08061-1&rft.au=Burk%2C+Dan+L.&rft.au=Mark+A.+Lemley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIntellectual+property" class="Z3988"></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r879151008"></li></ul>
|
||
</div>
|
||
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intellectual_property&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<table role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<tbody><tr>
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<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="wikipedia2019a%20Archivos/34px-Wikiquote-logo.png" decoding="async" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" width="34" height="40"></td>
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<td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Intellectual_property" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></b></i></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;text-align:left;"><tbody><tr><td style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br> <b>Intellectual property</b> <hr></td></tr><tr><td class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em">
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<ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Intellectual+property">Resources in your library</a></li>
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<li><a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/ftl/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Intellectual+property&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul></td>
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</tr></tbody></table>
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<ul><li>The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Audiovisual_Observatory" title="European Audiovisual Observatory">European Audiovisual Observatory</a> hosts articles on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.obs.coe.int/en/legal/copyright/">Copyright</a> legislature and covers media laws in their <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://merlin.obs.coe.int/newsletter.php/">Newsletter</a></li>
|
||
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/topics/3493/media-piracy/">Internet/Media Piracy: Statistics & Facts</a> Statista</li></ul>
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|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" title="Natural and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Law making</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballot_measure" title="Ballot measure">Ballot measure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_law" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Parliament" title="Act of Parliament">Act of Parliament</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress (US)</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_law" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law#Legal_theory" title="Law">Legal theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law#Legal_institutions" title="Law">Legal institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div>
|
||
<ul><li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li>
|
||
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li>
|
||
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li>
|
||
<li><b><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Portal</a></b></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Intellectual_property_activism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><span class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" role="button" tabindex="0"><a class="mw-collapsible-text">show</a></span><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Intellectual_property_activism" title="Template talk:Intellectual property activism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Intellectual_property_activism&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Intellectual_property_activism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual property</a> activism</div></th></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_scarcity" title="Artificial scarcity">Artificial scarcity</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">Digital rights management</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gripe_site" title="Gripe site">Gripe site</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_file_sharing" title="Legal aspects of file sharing">Legal aspects of file sharing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_(culture)" title="Mashup (culture)">Mashup</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)" title="Mashup (web application hybrid)">digital</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_(music)" title="Mashup (music)">music</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_(video)" title="Mashup (video)">videos</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopolies_of_knowledge" title="Monopolies of knowledge">Monopolies of knowledge</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_piracy" title="Music piracy">Music piracy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_work" title="Orphan work">Orphan works</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societal_views_on_patents" title="Societal views on patents">Patents</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_patent" title="Software patent">software</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_patent_debate" title="Software patent debate">software patent debate</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">trolling</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_rights_reversed" title="All rights reversed">All rights reversed</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Alternatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyright Alternatives">Alternative compensation system</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-copyright_notice" title="Anti-copyright notice">Anti-copyright notice</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software" title="Business models for open-source software">Business models for open-source software</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_use_of_copyleft_works" title="Commercial use of copyleft works">Commercial use of copyleft works</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production" title="Commons-based peer production">Commons-based peer production</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">Free content</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_license" title="Free software license">Free software license</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Libertarian positions</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_content" title="Open content">Open content</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-design_movement" title="Open-design movement">Open-design movement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Music_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open Music Model">Open Music Model</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patentleft" title="Patentleft">Open patent</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source software</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prizes_as_an_alternative_to_patents" title="Prizes as an alternative to patents">Prize system</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inducement_prize_contest" title="Inducement prize contest">contests</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share-alike" title="Share-alike">Share-alike</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_to_Knowledge_movement" title="Access to Knowledge movement">Access to Knowledge movement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_copyright" title="Opposition to copyright">Anti-copyright</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_movement" title="Free software movement">Free software movement</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyright</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_Alliance" title="Copyright Alliance">Copyright Alliance</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pro-copyleft</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons" title="Creative Commons">Creative Commons</a></li>
|
||
<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">Electronic Frontier Foundation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Rights_Group" title="Open Rights Group">Open Rights Group</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Transformative_Works" title="Organization for Transformative Works">Organization for Transformative Works</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay" title="The Pirate Bay">The Pirate Bay</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piratbyr%C3%A5n" title="Piratbyrån">Piratbyrån</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci-Hub" title="Sci-Hub">Sci-Hub</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Students_for_Free_Culture" title="Students for Free Culture">Students for Free Culture</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra_Elbakyan" title="Alexandra Elbakyan">Alexandra Elbakyan</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Falkvinge" title="Rick Falkvinge">Rick Falkvinge</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Lessig" title="Lawrence Lessig">Lawrence Lessig</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman" title="Richard Stallman">Richard Stallman</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Sunde" title="Peter Sunde">Peter Sunde</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Suber" title="Peter Suber">Peter Suber</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Swartz" title="Aaron Swartz">Aaron Swartz</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Documentaries</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steal_This_Film" title="Steal This Film"><i>Steal This Film</i> <span style="font-size:90%;">(2006, 2007)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Copy_Bad_Copy" title="Good Copy Bad Copy"><i>Good Copy Bad Copy</i> <span style="font-size:90%;">(2007)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RiP!:_A_Remix_Manifesto" title="RiP!: A Remix Manifesto"><i>RiP!: A Remix Manifesto</i> <span style="font-size:90%;">(2008)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TPB_AFK" title="TPB AFK"><i>TPB AFK: The Pirate Bay Away From Keyboard</i> <span style="font-size:90%;">(2013)</span></a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet%27s_Own_Boy" title="The Internet's Own Boy"><i>The Internet's Own Boy</i> <span style="font-size:90%;">(2014)</span></a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Property" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><span class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" role="button" tabindex="0"><a class="mw-collapsible-text">show</a></span><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Property_navbox" title="Template:Property navbox"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Property_navbox" title="Template talk:Property navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Property_navbox&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Property" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></div></th></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By owner</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communal_land" title="Communal land">Communal land</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_property" title="Community property">Community property</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estate_in_land" title="Estate in land">Estate in land</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">State</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_land" title="Crown land">Crown land</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By nature</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croft_(land)" title="Croft (land)">Croft</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intangible_property" title="Intangible property">Intangible</a></li>
|
||
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Intellectual</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">indigenous</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangible_property" title="Tangible property">Tangible</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immovable_property" title="Immovable property">immovable</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">Common land</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool resource</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_commons_(economics)" title="Digital commons (economics)">Digital</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">Global</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_commons" title="Information commons">Information</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_commons" title="Knowledge commons">Knowledge</a></li>
|
||
<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">Bundle of rights</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictitious_commodities" title="Fictitious commodities">fictitious commodities</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_good_(economics)" title="Common good (economics)">Common good (economics)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">Common ownership</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excludability" title="Excludability">Excludability</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_possession_theory_of_property" title="First possession theory of property">First possession</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">appropriation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">homestead principle</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-rider_problem" title="Free-rider problem">Free-rider problem</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">Game theory</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_rent" title="Law of rent">Law of rent</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_plunder" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" title="Natural and legal rights">Natural rights</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ownership" title="Common ownership">common</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customary_land" title="Customary land">customary</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">self</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">state</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usufruct" title="Usufruct">usufruct</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">women's</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Right to property</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivalry_(economics)" title="Rivalry (economics)">Rivalry</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons" title="Tragedy of the anticommons">anticommons</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia"><i>Acequia</i> (watercourse)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejido" title="Ejido"><i>Ejido</i> (agrarian land)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Forest types</a></li>
|
||
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">Huerta</a></i></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_tenure" title="Land tenure">Land tenure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienation_(property_law)" title="Alienation (property law)">alienation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easement" title="Easement">easement</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restraint_on_alienation" title="Restraint on alienation">restraint on alienation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_rights" title="Air rights">Air</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone" title="Exclusive economic zone">Fishing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scheduled_Tribes_and_Other_Traditional_Forest_Dwellers_(Recognition_of_Forest_Rights)_Act,_2006" title="The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006">Forest-dwelling (India)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_to_roam" title="Freedom to roam">Freedom to roam</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grazing_rights" title="Grazing rights">Grazing</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannage" title="Pannage">pannage</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_law#Land_rights" title="Land law">Land</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">indigenous</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatting</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littoral_rights" title="Littoral rights">Littoral</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">Mineral</a>
|
||
<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergregal" title="Bergregal">Bergregal</a></i></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_way" title="Right of way">Right of way</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Water</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior-appropriation_water_rights" title="Prior-appropriation water rights">prior-appropriation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riparian_water_rights" title="Riparian water rights">riparian</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accumulation_by_dispossession" title="Accumulation by dispossession">Disposession</a>/<br><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">Eminent domain</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">Enclosure</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expropriation" title="Expropriation">Expropriation</a></li>
|
||
<li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhud" title="Farhud">Farhud</a></i></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced migration</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_transfer" title="Population transfer">population transfer</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishing" title="Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing">Illegal fishing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_reform" title="Land reform">Land reform</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_plunder" title="Legal plunder">Legal plunder</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">Piracy</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">Poaching</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_taking" title="Regulatory taking">Regulatory taking</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">bride buying</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a></li>
|
||
<li>spousal
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husband-selling" title="Husband-selling">husband-selling</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">wife selling</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_tax" title="Inheritance tax">inheritance</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll_tax" title="Poll tax">poll</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">property</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">Theft</a></li></ul>
|
||
</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars<br><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r872444996">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(<i>key work</i>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">Henry George</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Hardin" title="Garrett Hardin">Garrett Hardin</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>
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<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>
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<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gift_(book)" title="The Gift (book)">The Gift</a></i></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinor_Ostrom" title="Elinor Ostrom">Elinor Ostrom</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a>
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<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Transformation_(book)" title="The Great Transformation (book)">The Great Transformation</a></i></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a>
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<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Property%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="What Is Property?">What Is Property?</a></i></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray N. Rothbard</a>
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<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Liberty" title="The Ethics of Liberty">The Ethics of Liberty</a></i></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>
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<ul><li><i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
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<li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Intellectual_property_law" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li> </ul>
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<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar" style=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ملكية فكرية – Arabic" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ar">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propied%C3%A1_intelectual" title="Propiedá intelectual – Asturian" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ast">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az" style="display: none;"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fqli_m%C3%BClkiyy%C9%99t" title="Əqli mülkiyyət – Azerbaijani" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn" style="display: none;"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6" title="মেধা সম্পদ – Bangla" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="bn">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan" style="display: none;"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AC-sek_ch%C3%A2i-s%C3%A1n-ko%C3%A2n" title="Tì-sek châi-sán-koân – Chinese (Min Nan)" hreflang="nan" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg" style="display: none;"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Интелектуална собственост – Bulgarian" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="bg">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar" style="display: none;"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geischtigs_Eigentum" title="Geischtigs Eigentum – Bavarian" hreflang="bar" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="bar">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs" style="display: none;"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualno_vlasni%C5%A1tvo" title="Intelektualno vlasništvo – Bosnian" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="bs">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propietat_intel%C2%B7lectual" title="Propietat intel·lectual – Catalan" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ca">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs" style="display: none;"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%AD_vlastnictv%C3%AD" title="Duševní vlastnictví – Czech" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="cs">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da" style="display: none;"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immaterialret" title="Immaterialret – Danish" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="da">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de" style="display: none;"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geistiges_Eigentum" title="Geistiges Eigentum – German" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="de">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et" style="display: none;"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellektuaalne_omand" title="Intellektuaalne omand – Estonian" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="et">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el" style="display: none;"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Διανοητική ιδιοκτησία – Greek" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es" style=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedad_intelectual" title="Propiedad intelectual – Spanish" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="es">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo" style="display: none;"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelekta_propra%C4%B5o" title="Intelekta propraĵo – Esperanto" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="eo">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu" style="display: none;"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabetza_intelektual" title="Jabetza intelektual – Basque" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="eu">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa" style="display: none;"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="مالکیت فکری – Persian" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="fa">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr" style="display: none;"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propri%C3%A9t%C3%A9_intellectuelle" title="Propriété intellectuelle – French" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="fr">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl" style="display: none;"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propiedade_intelectual" title="Propiedade intelectual – Galician" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="gl">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%8B%9D_%EC%9E%AC%EC%82%B0%EA%B6%8C" title="지식 재산권 – Korean" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ko">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy" style="display: none;"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%BD%D5%A5%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մտավոր սեփականություն – Armenian" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi" style=""><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE" title="बौद्धिक सम्पदा – Hindi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr" style="display: none;"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualno_vlasni%C5%A1tvo" title="Intelektualno vlasništvo – Croatian" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id" style=""><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekayaan_intelektual" title="Kekayaan intelektual – Indonesian" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is" style="display: none;"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugverk" title="Hugverk – Icelandic" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="is">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it" style="display: none;"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriet%C3%A0_intellettuale" title="Proprietà intellettuale – Italian" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="it">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he" style="display: none;"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%99" title="קניין רוחני – Hebrew" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="he">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk" style="display: none;"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%88%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Зияткерлік меншік – Kazakh" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="kk">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la" style="display: none;"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietas_intellectualis" title="Proprietas intellectualis – Latin" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="la">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv" style="display: none;"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektu%C4%81lais_%C4%ABpa%C5%A1ums" title="Intelektuālais īpašums – Latvian" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="lv">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt" style="display: none;"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektin%C4%97_nuosavyb%C4%97" title="Intelektinė nuosavybė – Lithuanian" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu" style="display: none;"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szellemi_alkot%C3%A1sok_joga" title="Szellemi alkotások joga – Hungarian" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="hu">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk" style="display: none;"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Интелектуална сопственост – Macedonian" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="mk">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="ബൗദ്ധികസ്വത്തവകാശം – Malayalam" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms" style=""><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harta_intelek" title="Harta intelek – Malay" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn" style="display: none;"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%8E%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D3%A9%D0%BC%D1%87" title="Оюуны өмч – Mongolian" hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="mn">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl" style="display: none;"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectuele_eigendom" title="Intellectuele eigendom – Dutch" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="nl">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="बौद्धिक सम्पत्ति – Nepali" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ne">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E7%9A%84%E8%B2%A1%E7%94%A3%E6%A8%A9" title="知的財産権 – Japanese" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ja">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no" style="display: none;"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immaterialrett" title="Immaterialrett – Norwegian" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="no">Norsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn" style="display: none;"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ndsrett" title="Åndsrett – Norwegian Nynorsk" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa" style="display: none;"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80" title="ਬੌਧਿਕ ਸੰਪਤੀ – Punjabi" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km" style="display: none;"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%89%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%B6" title="កម្មសិទ្ធិបញ្ញា – Khmer" hreflang="km" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="km">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl" style="display: none;"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82asno%C5%9B%C4%87_intelektualna" title="Własność intelektualna – Polish" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="pl">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt" style=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propriedade_intelectual" title="Propriedade intelectual – Portuguese" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="pt">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietate_intelectual%C4%83" title="Proprietate intelectuală – Romanian" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ro">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru" style=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Интеллектуальная собственность – Russian" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ru">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco" style="display: none;"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property – Scots" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="sco">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple" style="display: none;"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property – Simple English" hreflang="en-simple" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="en-simple">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk" style="display: none;"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%A9_vlastn%C3%ADctvo" title="Duševné vlastníctvo – Slovak" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl" style="display: none;"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualna_lastnina" title="Intelektualna lastnina – Slovenian" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb" style="display: none;"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8E%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%86%DA%A9%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="خاوەندارێتی بیرۆکەیی – Central Kurdish" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="ckb">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr" style="display: none;"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualna_svojina" title="Intelektualna svojina – Serbian" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh" style="display: none;"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelektualna_svojina" title="Intelektualna svojina – Serbo-Croatian" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi" style="display: none;"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immateriaalioikeus" title="Immateriaalioikeus – Finnish" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="fi">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv" style="display: none;"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immaterialr%C3%A4tt" title="Immaterialrätt – Swedish" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target" lang="sv">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta" style="display: none;"><a 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