Adición de bibliografía primaria
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@InCollection{ipstanford,
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@InCollection{moore2014a,
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author = {Moore, Adam and Himma, Ken},
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title = {Intellectual Property},
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booktitle = {The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy},
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@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
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url = {https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/intellectual-property/},
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}
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@Book{obraabierta,
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@Book{eco2016a,
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title = {Obra abierta},
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publisher = {epublibre},
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year = {2016},
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@ -23,9 +23,10 @@
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file = {:recursos/Eco, Umberto - Obra abierta.epub:ePUB},
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keywords = {obra, abierta},
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||||
timestamp = {2016-04-15},
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url = {https://epublibre.org/libro/detalle/29988},
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}
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@Book{piperrotriste,
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@Book{stallman2016a,
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title = {¿Propiedad intelectual? Una recopilación de ensayos críticos},
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publisher = {Perro Triste},
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year = {2016},
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@ -34,6 +35,370 @@
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isbn = {9786079718404},
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file = {:recursos/PropiedadIntelectual.epub:ePUB},
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keywords = {propiedad, intelectual, historia, crítica},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {https://github.com/ColectivoPerroTriste/Ebooks/blob/master/Colecci%C3%B3n%20Delta/Libros/Propiedad%20intelectual/PropiedadIntelectual.epub},
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||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{rangel2016a,
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||||
chapter = {I. Conceptos fundamentales del derecho intelectual mexicano},
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||||
title = {Panorama del derecho mexicano. Derecho intelectual},
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||||
publisher = {UNAM},
|
||||
year = {2016},
|
||||
author = {Rangel Medina, David},
|
||||
isbn = {9701019423},
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||||
file = {:recursos/conceptos-derecho-intelectual-mexicano.pdf:PDF},
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||||
keywords = {derecho, intelectual, mexicano},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv/detalle-libro/1912-panorama-del-derecho-mexicano-derecho-intelectual},
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||||
}
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||||
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@Article{stengel2004a,
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author = {Daniel Stengel},
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title = {Intellectual Property in Philosophy},
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journal = {ARSP: Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie / Archives for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy},
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year = {2004},
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volume = {90},
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number = {1},
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pages = {20-50},
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issn = {00012343},
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abstract = {The article deals with the concept of intellectual property and its basis in different philosophical theories. First, the author gives a short historical overview of the development of intellectual property, locating its roots already in pre-historical society. It is followed by an examination of today's features of intellectual property, in contrast to 'regular' property. In the second part, the article analyses the theories of Locke, Kant, Hegel, Servan and Foucault to explain intellectual property, followed by a discussion which of their theories' features are reflected by today's intellectual property law.},
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file = {:recursos/Intellectual Property in Philosophy.pdf:PDF},
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publisher = {Franz Steiner Verlag},
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url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/23681627},
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}
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@Book{drahos1996a,
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title = {A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Applied Legal Philosophy)},
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publisher = {Dartmouth Pub Co},
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year = {1996},
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author = {Peter Drahos},
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||||
isbn = {1855212404,9781855212404},
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||||
file = {:recursos/Peter Drahos-A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Applied Legal Philosophy)-Dartmouth Pub Co (1996).pdf:PDF},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=A9102DE4142FED0E1E3ACD70BE069EBB},
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}
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@Book{lenk2007a,
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title = {Ethics and Law of Intellectual Property},
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publisher = {Ashgate},
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year = {2007},
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author = {Lenk, Christian, Hoppe, Nils and Andorno, Roberto},
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series = {Applied Legal Philosophy},
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isbn = {0754626989,9780754626985,9780754685012},
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file = {:recursos/(Applied Legal Philosophy) Christian Lenk, Nils Hoppe and Roberto Andorno, Christian Lenk, Nils Hoppe, roberto Andorno-Ethics and Law of Intellectual Property -Ashgate (2007).pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=42A8D0A02740B6063E85AE70BD3CEFBB},
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}
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@Book{lever2012a,
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title = {New Frontiers in the Philosophy of Intellectual Property},
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publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
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year = {2012},
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author = {Lever, Annabelle},
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series = {Cambridge Intellectual Property and Information Law},
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isbn = {9781139525879,1139525875,9780511920837,0511920830,1283521946,9781283521949},
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file = {:recursos/(Cambridge Intellectual Property and Information Law) Annabelle Lever (ed.)-New Frontiers in the Philosophy of Intellectual Property-Cambridge University Press (2012).pdf:PDF},
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url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=94c9b1e4c70c84d18fd3e33cdaf52e0c},
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}
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@Article{child1990a,
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author = {Child, James W.},
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title = {The Moral Foundations of Intangible Property},
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journal = {The Monist},
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year = {1990},
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volume = {73},
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number = {4},
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pages = {578-600},
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issn = {00269662},
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file = {:recursos/The moral foundations of intangible property.pdf:PDF},
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publisher = {Oxford University Press},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/27903211},
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}
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@Article{breakey2010a,
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author = {Breakey, Hugh},
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title = {Natural Intellectual Property Rights and the Public Domain},
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journal = {The Modern Law Review},
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year = {2010},
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volume = {73},
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number = {2},
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pages = {208-239},
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issn = {00267961, 14682230},
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abstract = {No natural rights theory justifies strong intellectual property rights. More specifically, no theory within the entire domain of natural rights thinking — encompassing classical liberalism, libertarianism and left-libertarianism, in all their innumerable variants — coherently supports strengthening current intellectual property rights. Despite their many important différences, all these natural rights theories endorse some set of members of a common family of basic ethical precepts. These commitments include non-interference, fairness, non-worsening, consistency, universalisability, prior consent, self-ownership, self-governance, and the establishment of zones of autonomy. Such commitments have clear applications pertaining to the use and ownership of created ideas. I argue that each of these commitments require intellectual property rights to be substantially limited in scope, strength and duration. In this way the core mechanisms of natural rights thinking ensure a robust public domain and categorically rule out strong intellectual property rights.},
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file = {:recursos/Natural Intellectual Property Rights and the Public Domain.pdf:PDF},
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publisher = {[Modern Law Review, Wiley]},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/40660697},
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}
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@Article{barron2012a,
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author = {Barron, Anne},
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title = {Kant, Copyright and Communicative Freedom},
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journal = {Law and Philosophy},
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year = {2012},
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volume = {31},
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number = {1},
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pages = {1--48},
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issn = {1573-0522},
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abstract = {The rapid recent expansion of copyright law worldwide has sparked efforts to defend the `public domain' of non-propertized information, often on the ground that an expansive public domain is a condition of a `free culture'. Yet questions remain about why the public domain is worth defending, what exactly a free culture is, and what role (if any) authors' rights might play in relation to it. From the standard liberal perspective shared by many critics of copyright expansionism, the protection of individual expression by means of marketable property rights in authors' works serves as an engine of progress towards a fully competitive `marketplace of ideas' -- though only if balanced by an extensive public domain from which users may draw in the exercise of their own expressivity. This article shows that a significantly different, and arguably richer, conception of what a free culture is and how authors' rights underpin it emerges from a direct engagement with the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. For Kant, progress towards a fully emancipated (i.e. a `mature' or `enlightened') culture can only be achieved through the critical intellectual activity that public communication demands: individual expressive freedom is only a condition, not constitutive, of this `freedom to make public use of one's reason in all matters'. The main thesis defended in this article is that when Kant's writings on publicity (critical public debate) are read in relation to his writings on the legal organization of publishing, a necessary connection emerges between authors' rights -- as distinct from copyrights -- and what J{\"u}rgen Habermas and others have named the public sphere. I conclude that it is the public sphere, and not the public domain as such, that should serve as the key reference point in any evaluation of copyright law's role in relation to the possibility of a free culture.},
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doi = {10.1007/s10982-011-9114-1},
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file = {:recursos/Kant, Copyright and Communicative Freedom.pdf:PDF},
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url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10982-011-9114-1},
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}
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@Booklet{barthes1968a,
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title = {La muerte del autor},
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author = {Barthes, Roland},
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year = {1968},
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file = {:recursos/barthes1968a - La muerte del autor.html:URL},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://www.cubaliteraria.cu/revista/laletradelescriba/n51/articulo-4.html},
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}
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@Book{lessig2009a,
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title = {El código 2.0},
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publisher = {Traficantes de Sueños},
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year = {2009},
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author = {Lessig, Lawrence},
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editor = {Cabello, Florencio},
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isbn = {9788496453388},
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date = {2009-05-11},
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ean = {9788496453388},
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file = {:recursos/El código 2.0-TdS.pdf:PDF},
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pagetotal = {563},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {https://www.traficantes.net/libros/el-codigo-20},
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}
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@Book{lessig2011a,
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title = {Cultura libre},
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publisher = {LOM Ediciones},
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year = {2011},
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author = {Lawrence, Lessig},
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isbn = {9562827453},
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file = {:recursos/cultura_libre.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {https://derechosdigitales.org/culturalibre/},
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}
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@Book{bravo2005a,
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title = {Copia este libro},
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year = {2005},
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author = {Bravo Bueno, David},
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file = {:recursos/David-Bravo-Copia-este-libro.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://elastico.net/archives/005194.html},
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}
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@Booklet{foucault1999a,
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title = {¿Qué es un autor?},
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author = {Foucault, Michel},
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year = {1999},
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file = {:recursos/¿Qué es un autor?.pdf:PDF},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.saber.ula.ve/bitstream/123456789/15927/1/davila-autor.pdf},
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}
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@Book{wayner2000a,
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||||
title = {Free for All: How Linux and the Free Software Movement Undercut the High-Tech Titans},
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publisher = {HarperBusiness},
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year = {2000},
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||||
author = {Wayner, Peter},
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isbn = {0066620503},
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file = {:recursos/freeforall_4199.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {http://docview1.tlvnimg.com/tailieu/2013/20130123/nguyenhuucanh1212/freeforall_4199.pdf},
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}
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@Book{stallman2010a,
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title = {Free as in Freedom (2.0)},
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publisher = {Free Software Foundation, Inc},
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year = {2010},
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||||
author = {Williams, Sam and Stallman, Richard},
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isbn = {9780983159216},
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file = {:recursos/faif-2.0.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {https://sagitter.fedorapeople.org/faif-2.0.pdf},
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}
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@Article{hettinger1989a,
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author = {Hettinger, Edwin C.},
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title = {Justifying Intellectual Property},
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journal = {Philosophy \& Public Affairs},
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year = {1989},
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volume = {18},
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number = {1},
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pages = {31-52},
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issn = {00483915, 10884963},
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file = {:recursos/Justifying Intellectual Property.pdf:PDF},
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publisher = {Wiley},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265190},
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}
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@InBook{shiffrin2007a,
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chapter = {Intellectual Property},
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pages = {653-668},
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title = {A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy},
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publisher = {Blackwell},
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year = {2007},
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author = {Shiffrin, Seana Valentine},
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editor = {Goodin, Robert E., Pettit, Philip and Pogge,Thomas},
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isbn = {1405136537},
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date = {2007-11-11},
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ean = {9781405136532},
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file = {:recursos/Intellectual_Property.pdf:PDF},
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pagetotal = {952},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {https://www.academia.edu/3428807/Intellectual_Property},
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}
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@Book{gradin2004a,
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title = {Internet, hackers y software libre},
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publisher = {Editora Fantasma},
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year = {2004},
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editor = {Gradin, Carlos},
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isbn = {9872180806},
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file = {:recursos/Varios Autores - Internet hackers y software libre.epub:ePUB},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://www.epubgratis.org/internet-hackers-y-software-libre-carlos-gradin/},
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}
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@Book{lessig2001a,
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title = {The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World},
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publisher = {Random House},
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year = {2001},
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author = {Lessig, Lawrence},
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isbn = {0375505784},
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file = {:recursos/lessig_FOI.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://the-future-of-ideas.com/},
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}
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@Misc{indautor1996a,
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title = {Ley Federal del Derecho de Autor},
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year = {1996},
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file = {:recursos/leyfederal.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://www.indautor.gob.mx/documentos_normas/leyfederal.pdf},
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}
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@Article{palmer1990a,
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author = {Palmer, Tom G.},
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title = {Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified? The Philosophy of Property Rights and Ideal Objects},
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journal = {Harvard Journal of Law \& Public Policy},
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year = {1990},
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volume = {13},
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number = {3},
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pages = {817-865},
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file = {:recursos/palmer-morallyjustified-harvard-v13n3.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {http://tomgpalmer.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/palmer-morallyjustified-harvard-v13n3.pdf},
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}
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@Book{lopez2008a,
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title = {Propiedad intelectual, nuevas tecnologías y libre acceso a la cultura},
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publisher = {Centro Cultural de España en México — Universidad de las Américas Puebla},
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year = {2008},
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||||
author = {López Cuenca, Alberto et al.},
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editor = {López Cuenca, Alberto et al.},
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isbn = {9786077690},
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file = {:recursos/Propiedad_intelectual_nuevas_tecnologias.pdf:PDF},
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timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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url = {https://www.academia.edu/2057461/Propiedad_intelectual_nuevas_tecnolog%C3%ADas_y_libre_acceso_a_la_cultura_-_Alberto_L%C3%B3pez_Cuenca_Eduardo_Ram%C3%ADrez_Pedrajo_coordinadores_},
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}
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@Book{9788498884548,
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title = {Remix : cultura de la remezcla y derechos de autor en el entorno digital},
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publisher = {Icaria editorial},
|
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year = {2012},
|
||||
author = {Lessig, Lawrence},
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||||
isbn = {9788498884548},
|
||||
date = {2012-10-11},
|
||||
ean = {9788498884548},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/REMIX.pdf:PDF},
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||||
pagetotal = {368},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {http://icariaeditorial.com/pdf_libros/REMIX.pdf},
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}
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@Book{rose1993a,
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title = {Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright},
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publisher = {Harvard University Press},
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year = {1993},
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||||
author = {Rose, Mark},
|
||||
isbn = {0674053087},
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file = {:recursos/Rose_Mark_Authors_and_Owners_The_Invention_of_Copyright.pdf:PDF},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {https://monoskop.org/File:Rose_Mark_Authors_and_Owners_The_Invention_of_Copyright.pdf},
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}
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@Misc{schroeder2004a,
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author = {Schroeder, Jeanne},
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||||
title = {Unnatural Rights: Hegel And Intellectual Propery},
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year = {2004},
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file = {:recursos/Unnatural Rights\: Hegel And Intellectual Propery.pdf:PDF},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
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||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=518182},
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}
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@InBook{himma2006a,
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chapter = {Justifying Intellectual Property Protection: Why the Interests of Content-Creators Usually Wins Over Everyone Else’s},
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title = {Information, Technology and Social Justice},
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publisher = {Idea Group},
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year = {2006},
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author = {Himma, Kenneth Einar},
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editor = {Rooksby, Emma},
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file = {:recursos/Justifying Intellectual Property Protection.pdf:PDF},
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||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=840584},
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}
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@InBook{moore2008a,
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||||
chapter = {Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property},
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pages = {105-130},
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||||
title = {The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics},
|
||||
publisher = {John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.},
|
||||
year = {2008},
|
||||
author = {Moore, Adam D.},
|
||||
editor = {Himma, Kenneth Einar},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1980852},
|
||||
}
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|
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@Article{moore2012a,
|
||||
author = {Moore, Adam D.},
|
||||
title = {A Lockean Theory of Intellectual Property Revisited},
|
||||
journal = {San Diego Law Review},
|
||||
year = {2012},
|
||||
volume = {50},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/A Lockean Theory of Intellectual Property Revisited.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2099073},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{kuflik1989a,
|
||||
chapter = {The Moral Foundations of Intellectual Property Rights},
|
||||
title = {Owning Scientific and Technical Information},
|
||||
publisher = {Rutgers University Press},
|
||||
year = {1989},
|
||||
author = {Kuflik, Arthur},
|
||||
editor = {Weil, V. and Snapper, J.},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/ch3MoralFoundations.doc:Word},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://storm.cis.fordham.edu/~cschweikert/csrv4650/ch3MoralFoundations.doc},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{hughes1988a,
|
||||
author = {Hughes, Justin},
|
||||
title = {The Philosophy of Intellectual Property},
|
||||
journal = {Georgetown Law Journal},
|
||||
year = {1988},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/The Philosophy of Intellectual Property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.justinhughes.net/docs/a-ip01.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Comment{jabref-meta: databaseType:bibtex;}
|
||||
|
|
|
|||
|
|
@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
|
|||
% Encoding: UTF-8
|
||||
|
||||
@InCollection{ipstanford,
|
||||
@InCollection{moore2014a,
|
||||
author = {Moore, Adam and Himma, Ken},
|
||||
title = {Intellectual Property},
|
||||
booktitle = {The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy},
|
||||
|
|
@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
|
|||
url = {https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/intellectual-property/},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{obraabierta,
|
||||
@Book{eco2016a,
|
||||
title = {Obra abierta},
|
||||
publisher = {epublibre},
|
||||
year = {2016},
|
||||
|
|
@ -23,9 +23,10 @@
|
|||
file = {:recursos/Eco, Umberto - Obra abierta.epub:ePUB},
|
||||
keywords = {obra, abierta},
|
||||
timestamp = {2016-04-15},
|
||||
url = {https://epublibre.org/libro/detalle/29988},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{piperrotriste,
|
||||
@Book{stallman2016a,
|
||||
title = {¿Propiedad intelectual? Una recopilación de ensayos críticos},
|
||||
publisher = {Perro Triste},
|
||||
year = {2016},
|
||||
|
|
@ -34,6 +35,370 @@
|
|||
isbn = {9786079718404},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/PropiedadIntelectual.epub:ePUB},
|
||||
keywords = {propiedad, intelectual, historia, crítica},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://github.com/ColectivoPerroTriste/Ebooks/blob/master/Colecci%C3%B3n%20Delta/Libros/Propiedad%20intelectual/PropiedadIntelectual.epub},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{rangel2016a,
|
||||
chapter = {I. Conceptos fundamentales del derecho intelectual mexicano},
|
||||
title = {Panorama del derecho mexicano. Derecho intelectual},
|
||||
publisher = {UNAM},
|
||||
year = {2016},
|
||||
author = {Rangel Medina, David},
|
||||
isbn = {9701019423},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/conceptos-derecho-intelectual-mexicano.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
keywords = {derecho, intelectual, mexicano},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv/detalle-libro/1912-panorama-del-derecho-mexicano-derecho-intelectual},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{stengel2004a,
|
||||
author = {Daniel Stengel},
|
||||
title = {Intellectual Property in Philosophy},
|
||||
journal = {ARSP: Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie / Archives for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy},
|
||||
year = {2004},
|
||||
volume = {90},
|
||||
number = {1},
|
||||
pages = {20-50},
|
||||
issn = {00012343},
|
||||
abstract = {The article deals with the concept of intellectual property and its basis in different philosophical theories. First, the author gives a short historical overview of the development of intellectual property, locating its roots already in pre-historical society. It is followed by an examination of today's features of intellectual property, in contrast to 'regular' property. In the second part, the article analyses the theories of Locke, Kant, Hegel, Servan and Foucault to explain intellectual property, followed by a discussion which of their theories' features are reflected by today's intellectual property law.},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Intellectual Property in Philosophy.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
publisher = {Franz Steiner Verlag},
|
||||
url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/23681627},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{drahos1996a,
|
||||
title = {A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Applied Legal Philosophy)},
|
||||
publisher = {Dartmouth Pub Co},
|
||||
year = {1996},
|
||||
author = {Peter Drahos},
|
||||
isbn = {1855212404,9781855212404},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Peter Drahos-A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Applied Legal Philosophy)-Dartmouth Pub Co (1996).pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=A9102DE4142FED0E1E3ACD70BE069EBB},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{lenk2007a,
|
||||
title = {Ethics and Law of Intellectual Property},
|
||||
publisher = {Ashgate},
|
||||
year = {2007},
|
||||
author = {Lenk, Christian, Hoppe, Nils and Andorno, Roberto},
|
||||
series = {Applied Legal Philosophy},
|
||||
isbn = {0754626989,9780754626985,9780754685012},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/(Applied Legal Philosophy) Christian Lenk, Nils Hoppe and Roberto Andorno, Christian Lenk, Nils Hoppe, roberto Andorno-Ethics and Law of Intellectual Property -Ashgate (2007).pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=42A8D0A02740B6063E85AE70BD3CEFBB},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{lever2012a,
|
||||
title = {New Frontiers in the Philosophy of Intellectual Property},
|
||||
publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
|
||||
year = {2012},
|
||||
author = {Lever, Annabelle},
|
||||
series = {Cambridge Intellectual Property and Information Law},
|
||||
isbn = {9781139525879,1139525875,9780511920837,0511920830,1283521946,9781283521949},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/(Cambridge Intellectual Property and Information Law) Annabelle Lever (ed.)-New Frontiers in the Philosophy of Intellectual Property-Cambridge University Press (2012).pdf:PDF},
|
||||
url = {http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=94c9b1e4c70c84d18fd3e33cdaf52e0c},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{child1990a,
|
||||
author = {Child, James W.},
|
||||
title = {The Moral Foundations of Intangible Property},
|
||||
journal = {The Monist},
|
||||
year = {1990},
|
||||
volume = {73},
|
||||
number = {4},
|
||||
pages = {578-600},
|
||||
issn = {00269662},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/The moral foundations of intangible property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
publisher = {Oxford University Press},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/27903211},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{breakey2010a,
|
||||
author = {Breakey, Hugh},
|
||||
title = {Natural Intellectual Property Rights and the Public Domain},
|
||||
journal = {The Modern Law Review},
|
||||
year = {2010},
|
||||
volume = {73},
|
||||
number = {2},
|
||||
pages = {208-239},
|
||||
issn = {00267961, 14682230},
|
||||
abstract = {No natural rights theory justifies strong intellectual property rights. More specifically, no theory within the entire domain of natural rights thinking — encompassing classical liberalism, libertarianism and left-libertarianism, in all their innumerable variants — coherently supports strengthening current intellectual property rights. Despite their many important différences, all these natural rights theories endorse some set of members of a common family of basic ethical precepts. These commitments include non-interference, fairness, non-worsening, consistency, universalisability, prior consent, self-ownership, self-governance, and the establishment of zones of autonomy. Such commitments have clear applications pertaining to the use and ownership of created ideas. I argue that each of these commitments require intellectual property rights to be substantially limited in scope, strength and duration. In this way the core mechanisms of natural rights thinking ensure a robust public domain and categorically rule out strong intellectual property rights.},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Natural Intellectual Property Rights and the Public Domain.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
publisher = {[Modern Law Review, Wiley]},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/40660697},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{barron2012a,
|
||||
author = {Barron, Anne},
|
||||
title = {Kant, Copyright and Communicative Freedom},
|
||||
journal = {Law and Philosophy},
|
||||
year = {2012},
|
||||
volume = {31},
|
||||
number = {1},
|
||||
pages = {1--48},
|
||||
issn = {1573-0522},
|
||||
abstract = {The rapid recent expansion of copyright law worldwide has sparked efforts to defend the `public domain' of non-propertized information, often on the ground that an expansive public domain is a condition of a `free culture'. Yet questions remain about why the public domain is worth defending, what exactly a free culture is, and what role (if any) authors' rights might play in relation to it. From the standard liberal perspective shared by many critics of copyright expansionism, the protection of individual expression by means of marketable property rights in authors' works serves as an engine of progress towards a fully competitive `marketplace of ideas' -- though only if balanced by an extensive public domain from which users may draw in the exercise of their own expressivity. This article shows that a significantly different, and arguably richer, conception of what a free culture is and how authors' rights underpin it emerges from a direct engagement with the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. For Kant, progress towards a fully emancipated (i.e. a `mature' or `enlightened') culture can only be achieved through the critical intellectual activity that public communication demands: individual expressive freedom is only a condition, not constitutive, of this `freedom to make public use of one's reason in all matters'. The main thesis defended in this article is that when Kant's writings on publicity (critical public debate) are read in relation to his writings on the legal organization of publishing, a necessary connection emerges between authors' rights -- as distinct from copyrights -- and what J{\"u}rgen Habermas and others have named the public sphere. I conclude that it is the public sphere, and not the public domain as such, that should serve as the key reference point in any evaluation of copyright law's role in relation to the possibility of a free culture.},
|
||||
doi = {10.1007/s10982-011-9114-1},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Kant, Copyright and Communicative Freedom.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10982-011-9114-1},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Booklet{barthes1968a,
|
||||
title = {La muerte del autor},
|
||||
author = {Barthes, Roland},
|
||||
year = {1968},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/barthes1968a - La muerte del autor.html:URL},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.cubaliteraria.cu/revista/laletradelescriba/n51/articulo-4.html},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{lessig2009a,
|
||||
title = {El código 2.0},
|
||||
publisher = {Traficantes de Sueños},
|
||||
year = {2009},
|
||||
author = {Lessig, Lawrence},
|
||||
editor = {Cabello, Florencio},
|
||||
isbn = {9788496453388},
|
||||
date = {2009-05-11},
|
||||
ean = {9788496453388},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/El código 2.0-TdS.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
pagetotal = {563},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://www.traficantes.net/libros/el-codigo-20},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{lessig2011a,
|
||||
title = {Cultura libre},
|
||||
publisher = {LOM Ediciones},
|
||||
year = {2011},
|
||||
author = {Lawrence, Lessig},
|
||||
isbn = {9562827453},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/cultura_libre.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://derechosdigitales.org/culturalibre/},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{bravo2005a,
|
||||
title = {Copia este libro},
|
||||
year = {2005},
|
||||
author = {Bravo Bueno, David},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/David-Bravo-Copia-este-libro.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://elastico.net/archives/005194.html},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Booklet{foucault1999a,
|
||||
title = {¿Qué es un autor?},
|
||||
author = {Foucault, Michel},
|
||||
year = {1999},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/¿Qué es un autor?.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.saber.ula.ve/bitstream/123456789/15927/1/davila-autor.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{wayner2000a,
|
||||
title = {Free for All: How Linux and the Free Software Movement Undercut the High-Tech Titans},
|
||||
publisher = {HarperBusiness},
|
||||
year = {2000},
|
||||
author = {Wayner, Peter},
|
||||
isbn = {0066620503},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/freeforall_4199.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://docview1.tlvnimg.com/tailieu/2013/20130123/nguyenhuucanh1212/freeforall_4199.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{stallman2010a,
|
||||
title = {Free as in Freedom (2.0)},
|
||||
publisher = {Free Software Foundation, Inc},
|
||||
year = {2010},
|
||||
author = {Williams, Sam and Stallman, Richard},
|
||||
isbn = {9780983159216},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/faif-2.0.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://sagitter.fedorapeople.org/faif-2.0.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{hettinger1989a,
|
||||
author = {Hettinger, Edwin C.},
|
||||
title = {Justifying Intellectual Property},
|
||||
journal = {Philosophy \& Public Affairs},
|
||||
year = {1989},
|
||||
volume = {18},
|
||||
number = {1},
|
||||
pages = {31-52},
|
||||
issn = {00483915, 10884963},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Justifying Intellectual Property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
publisher = {Wiley},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.jstor.org/stable/2265190},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{shiffrin2007a,
|
||||
chapter = {Intellectual Property},
|
||||
pages = {653-668},
|
||||
title = {A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy},
|
||||
publisher = {Blackwell},
|
||||
year = {2007},
|
||||
author = {Shiffrin, Seana Valentine},
|
||||
editor = {Goodin, Robert E., Pettit, Philip and Pogge,Thomas},
|
||||
isbn = {1405136537},
|
||||
date = {2007-11-11},
|
||||
ean = {9781405136532},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Intellectual_Property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
pagetotal = {952},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://www.academia.edu/3428807/Intellectual_Property},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{gradin2004a,
|
||||
title = {Internet, hackers y software libre},
|
||||
publisher = {Editora Fantasma},
|
||||
year = {2004},
|
||||
editor = {Gradin, Carlos},
|
||||
isbn = {9872180806},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Varios Autores - Internet hackers y software libre.epub:ePUB},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.epubgratis.org/internet-hackers-y-software-libre-carlos-gradin/},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{lessig2001a,
|
||||
title = {The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World},
|
||||
publisher = {Random House},
|
||||
year = {2001},
|
||||
author = {Lessig, Lawrence},
|
||||
isbn = {0375505784},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/lessig_FOI.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://the-future-of-ideas.com/},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Misc{indautor1996a,
|
||||
title = {Ley Federal del Derecho de Autor},
|
||||
year = {1996},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/leyfederal.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.indautor.gob.mx/documentos_normas/leyfederal.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{palmer1990a,
|
||||
author = {Palmer, Tom G.},
|
||||
title = {Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified? The Philosophy of Property Rights and Ideal Objects},
|
||||
journal = {Harvard Journal of Law \& Public Policy},
|
||||
year = {1990},
|
||||
volume = {13},
|
||||
number = {3},
|
||||
pages = {817-865},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/palmer-morallyjustified-harvard-v13n3.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://tomgpalmer.com/wp-content/uploads/papers/palmer-morallyjustified-harvard-v13n3.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{lopez2008a,
|
||||
title = {Propiedad intelectual, nuevas tecnologías y libre acceso a la cultura},
|
||||
publisher = {Centro Cultural de España en México — Universidad de las Américas Puebla},
|
||||
year = {2008},
|
||||
author = {López Cuenca, Alberto et al.},
|
||||
editor = {López Cuenca, Alberto et al.},
|
||||
isbn = {9786077690},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Propiedad_intelectual_nuevas_tecnologias.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://www.academia.edu/2057461/Propiedad_intelectual_nuevas_tecnolog%C3%ADas_y_libre_acceso_a_la_cultura_-_Alberto_L%C3%B3pez_Cuenca_Eduardo_Ram%C3%ADrez_Pedrajo_coordinadores_},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{9788498884548,
|
||||
title = {Remix : cultura de la remezcla y derechos de autor en el entorno digital},
|
||||
publisher = {Icaria editorial},
|
||||
year = {2012},
|
||||
author = {Lessig, Lawrence},
|
||||
isbn = {9788498884548},
|
||||
date = {2012-10-11},
|
||||
ean = {9788498884548},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/REMIX.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
pagetotal = {368},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://icariaeditorial.com/pdf_libros/REMIX.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Book{rose1993a,
|
||||
title = {Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright},
|
||||
publisher = {Harvard University Press},
|
||||
year = {1993},
|
||||
author = {Rose, Mark},
|
||||
isbn = {0674053087},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Rose_Mark_Authors_and_Owners_The_Invention_of_Copyright.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://monoskop.org/File:Rose_Mark_Authors_and_Owners_The_Invention_of_Copyright.pdf},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Misc{schroeder2004a,
|
||||
author = {Schroeder, Jeanne},
|
||||
title = {Unnatural Rights: Hegel And Intellectual Propery},
|
||||
year = {2004},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Unnatural Rights\: Hegel And Intellectual Propery.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=518182},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{himma2006a,
|
||||
chapter = {Justifying Intellectual Property Protection: Why the Interests of Content-Creators Usually Wins Over Everyone Else’s},
|
||||
title = {Information, Technology and Social Justice},
|
||||
publisher = {Idea Group},
|
||||
year = {2006},
|
||||
author = {Himma, Kenneth Einar},
|
||||
editor = {Rooksby, Emma},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Justifying Intellectual Property Protection.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=840584},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{moore2008a,
|
||||
chapter = {Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property},
|
||||
pages = {105-130},
|
||||
title = {The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics},
|
||||
publisher = {John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.},
|
||||
year = {2008},
|
||||
author = {Moore, Adam D.},
|
||||
editor = {Himma, Kenneth Einar},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/Personality-Based, Rule-Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1980852},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{moore2012a,
|
||||
author = {Moore, Adam D.},
|
||||
title = {A Lockean Theory of Intellectual Property Revisited},
|
||||
journal = {San Diego Law Review},
|
||||
year = {2012},
|
||||
volume = {50},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/A Lockean Theory of Intellectual Property Revisited.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2099073},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@InBook{kuflik1989a,
|
||||
chapter = {The Moral Foundations of Intellectual Property Rights},
|
||||
title = {Owning Scientific and Technical Information},
|
||||
publisher = {Rutgers University Press},
|
||||
year = {1989},
|
||||
author = {Kuflik, Arthur},
|
||||
editor = {Weil, V. and Snapper, J.},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/ch3MoralFoundations.doc:Word},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://storm.cis.fordham.edu/~cschweikert/csrv4650/ch3MoralFoundations.doc},
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
||||
@Article{hughes1988a,
|
||||
author = {Hughes, Justin},
|
||||
title = {The Philosophy of Intellectual Property},
|
||||
journal = {Georgetown Law Journal},
|
||||
year = {1988},
|
||||
file = {:recursos/The Philosophy of Intellectual Property.pdf:PDF},
|
||||
timestamp = {2017-02-19},
|
||||
url = {http://www.justinhughes.net/docs/a-ip01.pdf},
|
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|
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<td>La muerte del autor</td>
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<td>1968</td>
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<td>The Philosophy of Intellectual Property</td>
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||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
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<td>1989</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
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|
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<td>The Moral Foundations of Intangible Property</td>
|
||||
<td>1990</td>
|
||||
<td>The Monist<br/>Vol. 73(4), pp. 578-600 </td>
|
||||
<td>article</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/27903211">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
<td>Palmer, T.G.</td>
|
||||
<td>Are Patents and Copyrights Morally Justified? The Philosophy of Property Rights and Ideal Objects</td>
|
||||
<td>1990</td>
|
||||
<td>Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy<br/>Vol. 13(3), pp. 817-865 </td>
|
||||
<td>article</td>
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
<td>Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright</td>
|
||||
<td>1993</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
<td>Drahos, P.</td>
|
||||
<td>A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Applied Legal Philosophy)</td>
|
||||
<td>1996</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=A9102DE4142FED0E1E3ACD70BE069EBB">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="indautor1996a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td></td>
|
||||
<td>Ley Federal del Derecho de Autor</td>
|
||||
<td>1996</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>misc</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://www.indautor.gob.mx/documentos_normas/leyfederal.pdf">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="foucault1999a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Foucault, M.</td>
|
||||
<td>¿Qué es un autor?</td>
|
||||
<td>1999</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>booklet</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://www.saber.ula.ve/bitstream/123456789/15927/1/davila-autor.pdf">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="wayner2000a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Wayner, P.</td>
|
||||
<td>Free for All: How Linux and the Free Software Movement Undercut the High-Tech Titans</td>
|
||||
<td>2000</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://docview1.tlvnimg.com/tailieu/2013/20130123/nguyenhuucanh1212/freeforall_4199.pdf">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="lessig2001a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Lessig, L.</td>
|
||||
<td>The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World</td>
|
||||
<td>2001</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://the-future-of-ideas.com/">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="gradin2004a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td></td>
|
||||
<td>Internet, hackers y software libre</td>
|
||||
<td>2004</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://www.epubgratis.org/internet-hackers-y-software-libre-carlos-gradin/">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="schroeder2004a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Schroeder, J.</td>
|
||||
<td>Unnatural Rights: Hegel And Intellectual Propery</td>
|
||||
<td>2004</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>misc</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=518182">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="stengel2004a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Stengel, D.</td>
|
||||
<td>Intellectual Property in Philosophy</td>
|
||||
<td>2004</td>
|
||||
<td>ARSP: Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie / Archives for Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy<br/>Vol. 90(1), pp. 20-50 </td>
|
||||
<td>article</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/23681627">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="bravo2005a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Bravo Bueno, D.</td>
|
||||
<td>Copia este libro</td>
|
||||
<td>2005</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://elastico.net/archives/005194.html">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="himma2006a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Himma, K.E.</td>
|
||||
<td>Information, Technology and Social Justice</td>
|
||||
<td>2006</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>inbook</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=840584">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="lenk2007a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Lenk Christian, H.N. and Andorno, R.</td>
|
||||
<td>Ethics and Law of Intellectual Property </td>
|
||||
<td>2007</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=42A8D0A02740B6063E85AE70BD3CEFBB">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="shiffrin2007a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Shiffrin, S.V.</td>
|
||||
<td>A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy</td>
|
||||
<td>2007</td>
|
||||
<td>, pp. 653-668 </td>
|
||||
<td>inbook</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://www.academia.edu/3428807/Intellectual_Property">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="lopez2008a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Cuenca, L. and et al. , A.</td>
|
||||
<td>Propiedad intelectual, nuevas tecnologías y libre acceso a la cultura</td>
|
||||
<td>2008</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://www.academia.edu/2057461/Propiedad_intelectual_nuevas_tecnolog%C3%ADas_y_libre_acceso_a_la_cultura_-_Alberto_L%C3%B3pez_Cuenca_Eduardo_Ram%C3%ADrez_Pedrajo_coordinadores_">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="moore2008a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Moore, A.D.</td>
|
||||
<td>The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics</td>
|
||||
<td>2008</td>
|
||||
<td>, pp. 105-130 </td>
|
||||
<td>inbook</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1980852">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="lessig2009a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Lessig, L.</td>
|
||||
<td>El código 2.0</td>
|
||||
<td>2009</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://www.traficantes.net/libros/el-codigo-20">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="breakey2010a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Breakey, H.</td>
|
||||
<td>Natural Intellectual Property Rights and the Public Domain</td>
|
||||
<td>2010</td>
|
||||
<td>The Modern Law Review<br/>Vol. 73(2), pp. 208-239 </td>
|
||||
<td>article</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/40660697">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="stallman2010a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Williams, S. and Stallman, R.</td>
|
||||
<td>Free as in Freedom (2.0)</td>
|
||||
<td>2010</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://sagitter.fedorapeople.org/faif-2.0.pdf">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="lessig2011a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Lawrence, L.</td>
|
||||
<td>Cultura libre</td>
|
||||
<td>2011</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://derechosdigitales.org/culturalibre/">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="9788498884548" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Lessig, L.</td>
|
||||
<td>Remix : cultura de la remezcla y derechos de autor en el entorno digital</td>
|
||||
<td>2012</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://icariaeditorial.com/pdf_libros/REMIX.pdf">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="barron2012a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Barron, A.</td>
|
||||
<td>Kant, Copyright and Communicative Freedom</td>
|
||||
<td>2012</td>
|
||||
<td>Law and Philosophy<br/>Vol. 31(1), pp. 1-48 </td>
|
||||
<td>article</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://doi.org/10.1007/s10982-011-9114-1">DOI</a> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10982-011-9114-1">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="lever2012a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Lever, A.</td>
|
||||
<td>New Frontiers in the Philosophy of Intellectual Property</td>
|
||||
<td>2012</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="http://gen.lib.rus.ec/book/index.php?md5=94c9b1e4c70c84d18fd3e33cdaf52e0c">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="moore2012a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Moore, A.D.</td>
|
||||
<td>A Lockean Theory of Intellectual Property Revisited</td>
|
||||
<td>2012</td>
|
||||
<td>San Diego Law Review<br/>Vol. 50 </td>
|
||||
<td>article</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2099073">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="moore2014a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Moore, A. and Himma, K.</td>
|
||||
<td>Intellectual Property</td>
|
||||
<td>2014</td>
|
||||
<td>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy </td>
|
||||
<td>incollection</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entries/intellectual-property/">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="eco2016a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Eco, U.</td>
|
||||
<td>Obra abierta</td>
|
||||
<td>2016</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://epublibre.org/libro/detalle/29988">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="rangel2016a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Rangel Medina, D.</td>
|
||||
<td>Panorama del derecho mexicano. Derecho intelectual</td>
|
||||
<td>2016</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>inbook</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://biblio.juridicas.unam.mx/bjv/detalle-libro/1912-panorama-del-derecho-mexicano-derecho-intelectual">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
<tr id="stallman2016a" class="entry">
|
||||
<td>Stallman, R.e.a.</td>
|
||||
<td>¿Propiedad intelectual? Una recopilación de ensayos críticos</td>
|
||||
<td>2016</td>
|
||||
<td> </td>
|
||||
<td>book</td>
|
||||
<td><a href="https://github.com/ColectivoPerroTriste/Ebooks/blob/master/Colecci%C3%B3n%20Delta/Libros/Propiedad%20intelectual/PropiedadIntelectual.epub">URL</a> </td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
</tbody>
|
||||
</table>
|
||||
<footer>
|
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<small>Created by <a href="http://jabref.sourceforge.net">JabRef</a> on 20/02/2017.</small>
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<tr>
|
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<td>
|
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<div align="right"></div>
|
||||
</td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
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<tr valign="top">
|
||||
<td height="709" align="left" valign="top"><div align="right"><font size="6"><font face="Courier New, Courier, mono" size="6"><font face="Times New Roman, Times, serif"><strong><font size="5"><img src="images/ilust-4.jpg" width="200" height="137" align="right"></font></strong></font></font></font> <font size="6" face="Times New Roman, Times, serif">LA MUERTE
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
DEL AUTOR</font><font size="3"> <font face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><strong>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Roland Barthes (Francia,1915-1980)</strong></font></font>
|
||||
<p align=left>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Balzac, en su novela Sarrasine, hablando de un castrado
|
||||
disfrazado de mujer, escribe lo siguiente: “Era
|
||||
la mujer, con sus miedos repentinos, sus caprichos
|
||||
irracionales, sus instintivas turbaciones, sus audacias
|
||||
sin causa, sus bravatas y su exquisita delicadeza de
|
||||
sentimientos”. ¿Quién está hablando así? ¿El héroe
|
||||
de la novela, interesado en ignorar al castrado que se
|
||||
esconde bajo la mujer? ¿El individuo Balzac, al que
|
||||
la experiencia personal ha provisto de una filosofía
|
||||
sobre la mujer? ¿El autor Balzac, haciendo profesión
|
||||
de ciertas ideas “literarias” sobre la feminidad? ¿La
|
||||
sabiduría universal? ¿La psicología romántica?
|
||||
Jamás será posible averiguarlo, por la sencilla razón
|
||||
de que la escritura es la destrucción de toda voz, de
|
||||
todo origen. La escritura es ese lugar neutro, compuesto,
|
||||
oblicuo, al que va a parar nuestro sujeto, el
|
||||
blanco-y-negro en donde acaba por perderse toda
|
||||
identidad, comenzando por la propia identidad del
|
||||
cuerpo que escribe.
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Siempre ha sido así, sin duda: en cuanto un
|
||||
hecho pasa a ser relatado, con fines intransitivos
|
||||
y no con la finalidad de actuar directamente
|
||||
sobre lo real, es decir, en definitiva, sin más función
|
||||
que el propio ejercicio del símbolo, se produce
|
||||
esa ruptura, la voz pierde su origen, el autor
|
||||
entra en su propia muerte, comienza la escritura.
|
||||
No obstante, el sentimiento sobre este fenómeno
|
||||
ha sido variable; en las sociedades etnográficas,
|
||||
el relato jamás ha estado a cargo de una persona,
|
||||
sino de un mediador, chamán o recitador,
|
||||
del que se puede, en rigor, admirar la “performance”
|
||||
(es decir, el dominio del código narrativo),
|
||||
pero nunca el “genio”. El autor es un personaje
|
||||
moderno, producido indudablemente por nuestra
|
||||
sociedad, en la medida que esta, al salir de la
|
||||
Edad Media y gracias al empirismo inglés, el
|
||||
racionalismo francés y la fe personal de la
|
||||
Reforma, descubre el prestigio del individuo o
|
||||
dicho de manera más noble, de la “persona
|
||||
humana”. Es lógico, por lo tanto, que en materia
|
||||
de la literatura sea el positivismo, resumen y
|
||||
resultado de la ideología capitalista, el que haya
|
||||
concedido la máxima importancia a la “persona”
|
||||
del autor. Aún impera el autor en los manuales de
|
||||
historia literaria, las bibliografías de escritores,
|
||||
las entrevistas en revistas, y hasta en la conciencia
|
||||
misma de los literatos, que tienen buen cuidado
|
||||
de reunir su persona con su obra gracias a
|
||||
su diario íntimo; la imagen de la literatura que es
|
||||
posible encontrar en la cultura común tiene su
|
||||
centro, tiránicamente, en el autor, su persona, su
|
||||
historia, sus gustos, sus pasiones; la crítica aún
|
||||
consiste, la mayoría de las veces, en decir que la
|
||||
obra de Baudelaire es el fracaso de Baudelaire
|
||||
como hombre; la de Van Gogh, su locura; la de
|
||||
Tchaikovsky, su vicio: la explicación de la obra se
|
||||
busca siempre en el que la ha producido, como si,
|
||||
a través de la alegoría más o menos transparente
|
||||
de la ficción, fuera, en definitiva, siempre, la
|
||||
voz de una sola y misma persona, el autor, la que
|
||||
estaría entregando sus “confidencias”.
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Aunque todavía sea muy poderoso el imperio del
|
||||
Autor (la nueva crítica lo único que ha hecho es consolidarlo),
|
||||
es obvio que algunos escritores hace ya
|
||||
algún tiempo que se han sentido tentados por su
|
||||
derrumbamiento. En Francia ha sido, sin duda,
|
||||
Mallarmé el primero en ver y prever en toda su
|
||||
amplitud la necesidad de sustituir por el propio lenguaje
|
||||
al que hasta entonces se suponía que era su
|
||||
propietario; para él, igual que para nosotros, es el
|
||||
lenguaje, y no el autor, el que habla; escribir consiste
|
||||
en alcanzar, a través de una previa impersonalidad
|
||||
–que no se debería confundir en ningún momento
|
||||
con la objetividad castradora del novelista realista–
|
||||
ese punto en el cual sólo el lenguaje actúa “performa”,
|
||||
<strong>1</strong> y no “yo”: toda la poética de Mallarmé consiste
|
||||
en suprimir al autor en beneficio de la escritura (lo
|
||||
cual, como se verá, es devolver su sitio al lector).
|
||||
Valéry, completamente enmarañado en una psicología
|
||||
del Yo, edulcoró mucho la teoría de Mallarmé,
|
||||
pero al remitir, por amor al clasicismo, a las lecciones
|
||||
de la retórica, no dejó de someter al Autor a la
|
||||
duda y la irrisión, acentuó la naturaleza lingüística y
|
||||
como “azarosa” de su actividad, y reivindicó a lo
|
||||
largo de sus libros en prosa la condición esencialmente
|
||||
verbal de la literatura, frente a la cual cualquier
|
||||
recurso a la interioridad del escritor le parecía
|
||||
pura superstición. El mismo Proust, a pesar del
|
||||
carácter aparentemente psicológico de lo que se
|
||||
suele llamar su análisis, se impuso de modo claro
|
||||
como tarea el emborronar inexorablemente, gracias
|
||||
a una extremada sutilización, la relación entre el
|
||||
escritor y sus personales: al convertir al narrador no
|
||||
en el que ha visto y sentido, ni siquiera en el que está
|
||||
escribiendo, sino en el que va a escribir (el joven de
|
||||
la novela –pero, por cierto, ¿qué edad tiene y quién
|
||||
es ese joven?– quiere escribir, pero no puede, y la
|
||||
novela acaba cuando por fin se hace posible la escritura),
|
||||
Proust ha hecho entrega de su epopeya a la
|
||||
escritura moderna: realizando una inversión radical,
|
||||
en lugar de introducir su vida en su novela, como tan
|
||||
a menudo se ha dicho, hizo de su propia vida una
|
||||
obra cuyo modelo fue su propio libro, de tal modo
|
||||
que nos resultara evidente que no es Charlus el que
|
||||
imita a Montesquieu, sino que Montesquieu, en su
|
||||
realidad anecdótica, histórica, no es sino un fragmento
|
||||
secundario, derivado, de Charlus. Por último,
|
||||
el Surrealismo, ya que seguimos con la prehistoria de
|
||||
la modernidad, indudablemente, no podía atribuir al
|
||||
lenguaje una posición soberana, en la medida que el
|
||||
lenguaje es un sistema, y que lo que este movimiento
|
||||
postulaba, románticamente, era una subversión
|
||||
directa de los códigos –ilusoria, por otra parte, ya
|
||||
que un código no puede ser destruido, tan sólo es
|
||||
posible “burlarlo”–; pero al recomendar de modo
|
||||
incesante que se frustraran bruscamente lo sentidos
|
||||
esperados (el famoso “sobresalto” surrealista), al
|
||||
confiar a la mano la tarea de escribir lo más aprisa
|
||||
posible lo que la mente misma ignoraba (eso era la
|
||||
famosa escritura automática), al aceptar el principio
|
||||
y la experiencia de una escritura colectiva, el
|
||||
Surrealismo contribuyó a desacralizar la imagen del
|
||||
Autor. Por último fuera de la literatura en sí (a decir
|
||||
verdad, estas distinciones están quedándose caducas),
|
||||
la lingüística acaba de proporcionar a la destrucción
|
||||
del Autor un instrumento analítico precioso,
|
||||
al mostrar que la enunciación en su totalidad es
|
||||
un proceso vacío que funciona a la perfección sin
|
||||
que sea necesario rellenarlo con las personas de sus
|
||||
interlocutores: lingüísticamente, el autor nunca es
|
||||
nada más que el que escribe, del mismo modo que
|
||||
yo no es otra cosa sino el que dice yo: el lenguaje
|
||||
conoce un “sujeto”, no una “persona”, y ese sujeto,
|
||||
vacío excepto en la propia enunciación, que es la que
|
||||
lo define, es suficiente para conseguir que el lenguaje
|
||||
se “mantenga en pie”, o sea, para llegar a agotarlo
|
||||
por completo.
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
El alejamiento del Autor (se podría hablar, siguiendo
|
||||
a Brecht, de un auténtico “distanciamiento”, en el
|
||||
que el Autor se empequeñece como una estatuilla al
|
||||
fondo de la escena literaria) no es tan sólo un hecho
|
||||
histórico o un acto de escritura: transforma de cabo
|
||||
a rabo el texto moderno (o –lo que viene a ser lo
|
||||
mismo– que el autor se ausenta de él a todos los
|
||||
niveles). Para empezar, el tiempo ya no es el mismo.
|
||||
Cuando se cree en el Autor, este se concibe siempre
|
||||
como el pasado de su propio libro: el libro y el autor
|
||||
se sitúan por sí solos en una misma línea, distribuida
|
||||
en un antes y un después: se supone que el Autor es
|
||||
el que nutre al libro, o sea, que existe antes que él,
|
||||
que piensa, sufre y vive para él; mantiene con su obra
|
||||
la misma relación de antecedente que un padre respecto
|
||||
a su hijo. Por el contrario, el escritor moderno
|
||||
nace a la vez que su texto; no está provisto en absoluto
|
||||
de un ser que preceda o exceda su escritura, no
|
||||
es en absoluto el sujeto cuyo predicado sería el libro;
|
||||
no existe otro tiempo que el de la enunciación, y todo
|
||||
texto está escrito eternamente aquí y ahora. Es que
|
||||
(o se sigue que) escribir ya no puede seguir designando
|
||||
una operación de registro, de constatación, de
|
||||
representación, de “pintura” (como decían los
|
||||
Clásicos), sino que más bien es lo que los lingüistas,
|
||||
siguiendo la filosofía oxfordiana, llaman un performativo,
|
||||
forma verbal extraña (que se da exclusivamente
|
||||
en primera persona y presente) en la que la
|
||||
enunciación no tiene más contenido (más enunciado)
|
||||
que el acto por el cual ella misma se profiere: algo así
|
||||
como el Yo declaro de los reyes o el Yo canto de los
|
||||
más antiguos poetas; el moderno, después de enterrar
|
||||
al Autor, no puede ya creer, según la patética
|
||||
visión de sus predecesores, que su mano es demasiado
|
||||
lenta para su pensamiento o su pasión, y que, en
|
||||
consecuencia, convirtiendo la necesidad en ley, debe
|
||||
acentuar ese retraso y “trabajar” indefinidamente la
|
||||
forma; para él, por el contrario, la mano, alejada de
|
||||
toda voz, arrastrada por un mero gesto de inscripción
|
||||
(y no de expresión), traza un campo de origen, o que,
|
||||
al menos, no tiene más origen que el mismo lenguaje,
|
||||
es decir, exactamente eso que no cesa de poner en
|
||||
duda todos los orígenes.
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Hoy en día sabemos que un texto no está constituido
|
||||
por una fila de palabras, de las que se desprende
|
||||
un único sentido, teológico, en cierto modo (pues
|
||||
sería el mensaje del Autor-Dios), sino por un espacio
|
||||
de múltiples dimensiones en el que se concuerdan y
|
||||
se contrastan diversas escrituras, ninguna de las
|
||||
cuales es la original: el texto es un tejido de citas
|
||||
provenientes de los mil focos de la cultura. Semejante
|
||||
a Bouvard y Pécuchet, eternos copistas,
|
||||
sublimes y cómicos a la vez, cuya profunda ridiculez
|
||||
designa precisamente la verdad de la escritura, el
|
||||
escritor se limita a imitar un gesto siempre anterior,
|
||||
nunca original; el único poder que tiene es el de
|
||||
mezclar las escrituras, llevar la contraria a unas con
|
||||
otras, de manera que nunca se pueda uno apoyar en
|
||||
una de ellas; aunque quiera expresarse, al menos
|
||||
debería saber que la “cosa” interior que tiene la
|
||||
intención de “traducir” no es en sí misma más que
|
||||
un diccionario ya compuesto, en el que las palabras
|
||||
no pueden explicarse sino a través de otras palabras,
|
||||
y así indefinidamente: aventura que le sucedió de
|
||||
manera ejemplar a Thomas de Quincey cuando
|
||||
joven, que iba tan bien en griego que para traducir a
|
||||
esa lengua ideas e imágenes absolutamente modernas,
|
||||
según nos cuenta Baudelaire, “había creado
|
||||
para sí mismo un diccionario siempre a punto y de
|
||||
muy distinta complejidad y extensión del que resulta
|
||||
de la vulgar paciencia de los temas puramente
|
||||
literarios” (Los paraísos artificiales); como sucesor
|
||||
del Autor, el escritor ya no tiene pasiones, humores,
|
||||
sentimientos, impresiones, sino ese inmenso diccionario
|
||||
del que extrae una escritura que no puede
|
||||
pararse jamás: la vida nunca hace otra cosa que imitar
|
||||
al libro, y ese libro mismo no es más que un tejido
|
||||
de signos, una imitación perdida, que retrocede
|
||||
infinitamente.
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Una vez alejado del Autor, se vuelve inútil la pretensión
|
||||
de “descifrar” un texto. Darle a un texto un
|
||||
Autor es imponerle un seguro, proveerlo de un significado
|
||||
último, cerrar la escritura. Esta concepción le
|
||||
viene muy bien a la crítica, que entonces pretende
|
||||
dedicarse a la importante tarea de descubrir al Autor
|
||||
(o a sus hipóstasis: la sociedad, la historia, la psique,
|
||||
la libertad) bajo la obra: una vez hallado el Autor, el
|
||||
texto se “explica”, el crítico ha alcanzado la victoria;
|
||||
así pues, no hay nada asombroso en el hecho de que,
|
||||
históricamente, el imperio del Autor haya sido también
|
||||
el del Crítico, ni tampoco el hecho de que la crítica
|
||||
(por nueva que sea) caiga desmantelada a la vez
|
||||
que el Autor. En la escritura múltiple, efectivamente,
|
||||
todo está por desenredar pero nada por descifrar;
|
||||
puede seguirse la estructura, se la puede reseguir
|
||||
(como un punto de media que se corre) en todos sus
|
||||
nudos y todos sus niveles, pero no hay un fondo; el
|
||||
espacio de la escritura ha de recorrerse, no puede
|
||||
atravesarse; la escritura instaura sentido sin cesar,
|
||||
pero siempre acaba por evaporarlo: precede a una
|
||||
exención sistemática del sentido. Por eso mismo, la
|
||||
literatura (sería mejor decir la escritura, de ahora en
|
||||
adelante), al rehusar la asignación al texto (y al
|
||||
mundo como texto) de un “secreto”, es decir, un sentido
|
||||
último, se entrega a una actividad que se podría
|
||||
llamar contrateología, revolucionaria en sentido propio,
|
||||
pues rehusar la detención del sentido, es, en
|
||||
definitiva, rechazar a Dios y a sus hipóstasis, la
|
||||
razón, la ciencia, la ley.
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Volvamos a la frase de Balzac. Nadie (es decir, ninguna
|
||||
“persona”) la está diciendo: su fuente, su voz,
|
||||
no es el auténtico lugar de la escritura, sino la lectura.
|
||||
Otro ejemplo, muy preciso, puede ayudar a comprenderlo:
|
||||
recientes investigaciones (J. P. Vernant)
|
||||
han sacado a la luz la naturaleza constitutivamente
|
||||
ambigua de la tragedia griega; en esta, el texto está
|
||||
tejido con palabras de doble sentido, que cada individuo
|
||||
comprende de manera unilateral (precisamente
|
||||
este perpetuo malentendido constituye lo “trágico”);
|
||||
no obstante, existe alguien que entiende cada
|
||||
una de las palabras por su duplicidad, y además
|
||||
entiende, por decirlo así, incluso la sordera de los personajes
|
||||
que están hablando ante él: ese alguien es,
|
||||
precisamente, el lector (en este caso el oyente). De
|
||||
esta manera se desvela el sentido total de la escritura:
|
||||
un texto está formado por escrituras múltiples,
|
||||
procedentes de varias culturas y que, unas con otras,
|
||||
establecen un diálogo, una parodia, un cuestionamiento;
|
||||
pero existe un lugar en el que se recoge toda
|
||||
esa multiplicidad, y ese lugar no es el autor, como
|
||||
hasta hoy se ha dicho, sino el lector: el lector es el
|
||||
espacio mismo en que se inscriben, sin que se pierda
|
||||
ni una, todas las citas que constituyen una escritura;
|
||||
la unidad del texto no está en su origen, sino en su
|
||||
destino, pero este destino ya no puede seguir siendo
|
||||
personal: el lector es un hombre sin historia, sin biografía,
|
||||
sin psicología; él es tan sólo ese alguien que
|
||||
mantiene reunidas en un mismo campo todas las
|
||||
huellas que constituyen el escrito. Y esta es la razón
|
||||
por la cual nos resulta risible oír cómo se condena la
|
||||
nueva escritura en nombre de un humanismo que se
|
||||
erige, hipócritamente, en campeón de los derechos
|
||||
del lector. La crítica clásica no se ha ocupado del lector;
|
||||
para ella no hay en la literatura otro hombre que
|
||||
el que la escribe. Hoy en día estamos empezando a no
|
||||
caer en la trampa de esa especie de antífrasis gracias
|
||||
a la que la buena sociedad recrimina soberbiamente
|
||||
a favor de lo que precisamente ella misma está apartando,
|
||||
ignorando, sofocando o destruyendo; sabemos
|
||||
que para devolverle su porvenir a la escritura hay que
|
||||
darle la vuelta al mito: el nacimiento del lector se
|
||||
paga con la muerte del Autor.
|
||||
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
<strong>Manteia, 1968<br>
|
||||
</strong> </p>
|
||||
<p align=left>...................................................................................................................................................................</p>
|
||||
<p align=left><strong>1</strong>_ <font size="2">Es un anglicismo. Lo conservo como tal, entrecomillado, ya
|
||||
que parece aludir a la “performance” de la gramática chomskyana,
|
||||
que suele traducirse por “actuación”. [N. del T.]
|
||||
<strong><font size="3"><br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
Traducción: C. Fernández Medrano<br>
|
||||
<br>
|
||||
</font></strong></font></p>
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
</td>
|
||||
</tr>
|
||||
</table>
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
</table>
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
<tr>
|
||||
<td height="2">
|
||||
<div align="center"><img src="images/banner-iart.gif" width="173" height="15"></div>
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 itatively classified as }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 intellectual property. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 With equal authority, however, it is also }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 said that nobody can legitimately patent or copyright an }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 idea.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li5\ri509\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin509\lin5\itap0 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 There is something of a puzzle here. For if ideas cannot be patented or copy\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 righted, then in what sense do patents and copyrights secure or protect intellectual property? A moment's reflection on this puzzle only leads to other, morally more sig\-
|
||||
nificant, perplexities: Would the practice of granting a person proprietary rights to an }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 idea be morally defensible? If intellectual property law does }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\i\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 not }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 make a person the owner of an idea, then to what do patentees and copyright holders have proprietary }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 claim? And on what basis?}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi245\li0\ri499\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin499\lin0\itap0 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 If one listens to what some of the staunchest defenders of private property have }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 had to say about intellectual
|
||||
property, the puzzlement is likely to be exacerbated, not alleviated. On the one side, one might hear that "patents are at the heart and core of property rights .. . once they are destroyed, the destruction of all other rights will fol\-}{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 low automatically, as a brief postscript" (Rand 1967). On the other side, one might be told, "Patents . .. invade rather than defend property rights" (Rothbard 1977).}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri504\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin504\lin0\itap0 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 In what follows, I address two issues: First, do patents and copyrights create (or }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 secure) property in ideas? And second, is the practice of assigning patents, copyrights, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
and other forms of intellectual property morally defensible? And I argue for two the\-ses: First, the intellectual property system cannot be satisfactorily grounded in the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 principle that a perso
|
||||
n literally owns, as a matter of natural right, the ideas that he is the first to conceive. And second, underlying, and to some extent shaping, the prac\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
tice of granting patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property is the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 need to strike a
|
||||
suitable balance among three important considerations: freedom of thought and expression, incentive to authorship and to technological innovation, and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 fairness.
|
||||
\par }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid1407503
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li14\ri3091\sb293\sl-245\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin3091\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW }{\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch
|
||||
\b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 AND THE OWNERSHIP OF IDEAS}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li5\ri0\sb216\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 What Is Owned, If Not Ideas?}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li5\ri67\sb211\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin67\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 Do patents and copyrights bestow ownership of ideas? And if they do not, to what }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 do they give their holders title? Federal law makes it perfectly clear that what is copy\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
righted is not an idea, but the particular expression that it has been given. Thus, Unit\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 ed States Code 17, section 102 reads:}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li480\ri72\sb235\sl-197\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin72\lin480\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 (a) Copyright protection subsists }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch
|
||||
\fs18\expnd7\expndtw35\cf1\insrsid14745692 ...}{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 in original works of authorship fixed in any tangi\-}{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ble medium of expression .. . (b) In no case does copyright protection for an original }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692 concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li10\ri77\sb221\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin77\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 But what about patents? Do they secure property in ideas? To secure a patent one }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 must be able to specify a new, useful, and nonobvious process, machine, manufac\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ture, or composition of matter and to do so in such detail as would enable any per\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 son skilled in the relevant "art" or discipline "to make and use the same" (35 U.S.C. sees. 102, 103, 112).}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li5\ri62\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin62\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Here the term }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 process }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 refers to a method for transforming or reducing a phys\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ical substance to a different state or thing; it does not refer either to a method of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
thinking or of solving intellectual problems or to a method of doing business. Indeed, abstract ideas, mental processes, methods of thinking or of solving intellectual prob\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 lems\emdash
|
||||
no matter how new and original they might be\emdash are not proper subject matter }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 for a patent application }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 (Gottschalk }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 v. }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Benson, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 409 U.S. 63 [1972]).}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 In light of all this, it is tempting to suggest that what a person patents, and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
thereby comes to own, is not simply an idea, but a useful or practical idea. But this theory does not quite fit the phenomenon it is intended to explain. There are two objections to it. First, having a useful idea\emdash
|
||||
even granted that it is not only new but }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 also nonobvious\emdash is not a sufficient basis for holding a patent. Second, patenting, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
even when one has a sufficient basis for it, does not literally give one ownership of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 an idea.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li5\ri86\sb245\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin86\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af0 \ltrch \b\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Being the First to Put Forward a Useful Idea Is Not a Sufficient Basis for Hold\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \ab\af0 \ltrch \b\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 ing a Patent }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 Consider the following dialogue:}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li485\ri82\sb245\sl-197\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin82\lin485\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
"I've just come up with a brilliant idea: I've noticed that snow melts at different rates }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 on different kinds of surfaces. Now, imagine a substance you could spread over the side\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 walks so that whenever it snows, the snow melts almost as soon as it falls!"}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li667\ri0\sl-197\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin667\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 "What is that substance?"}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi187\li475\ri82\sl-197\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin82\lin475\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
"I don't know, but as the first person to think up this very clever idea, I'm going to }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 patent it; then I can draw royalties from anybody who does manage to find a substance }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 that does the job I have in mind."}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb226\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Clearly, if the useful idea\emdash brilliant and original though it may be\emdash
|
||||
concerns the gen}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 eral function or purpose that some (as yet unspecified) device, substance, or process }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
would serve, it does not provide a sufficient basis for holding a patent.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li14\ri14\sb283\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Granted that a person cannot get a patent merely by virtue of being the first to }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 conceive a useful function, one might suppose that contributing new, nonobvious, and }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
useful ideas about how the specified function is to be performed would qualify some\-}{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 one for a patent.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li10\ri5\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin5\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 But then consider the following\emdash
|
||||
someone discovers the special theory of rel\-ativity. Pondering }{\rtlch \ai\af0\afs21 \ltrch \i\fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid10947932 E = mc}{\rtlch \ai\af0\afs21 \ltrch \i\fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\super\insrsid10947932 2}{\rtlch \ai\af0\afs21
|
||||
\ltrch \i\fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 , }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 he realizes that it may be possible to derive significant }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
amounts of energy from matter. He suggests that the heaviest, most unstable ele\-ments\emdash uranium, for example\emdash are likely to provide the most promising material }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
basis for effecting such a conversion. Though he has practical insights indispensable }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 to the development of an extremely important technology\emdash insights for which others }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 might be more than willing to pay a handsome price\emdash this person does not have a }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 sufficient basis for a patent.}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li5\ri14\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 Persons who put forward new and nonobvious ideas indispensable to the devel
|
||||
\-}{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 opment of new and useful technologies are not rewarded by the patent system. Only those who go
|
||||
further and offer specific instructions about how to compound a useful chemical substance, engage in a productive process of manufacture, and so forth are entitled to the prerogatives of a patent holder. Moreover, these instructions must be }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 sufficiently clear and precise to enable persons skilled in the relevant art or discipline }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
to replicate, without further experimentation or invention, what has been specified.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri0\sb211\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af0\afs21 \ltrch \b\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
Even When One Has a Sufficient Basis for a Patent, It Does Not Literally Give }{\rtlch \ab\af0\afs21 \ltrch \b\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 One Ownership of an Idea }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
Imagine that someone has not only envisioned a func\-}{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 tion to be performed, but has also conceived, and in detail sufficient to enable others }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch
|
||||
\fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 in the field to "make and use" the same, something that is capable of performing that function. And suppose he has obtained a patent. The fact remains that anybody has the }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch
|
||||
\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 right to think the thoughts that characterize whichever design, formula, or process he }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
has conceived. Thus, anybody has the right to believe that if certain materials are put }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 together in a certain way one will have something (whether it be a machine, or a man\-
|
||||
ufactured product, or a chemical compound, or what have you) that is capable of per\-}{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 forming the designated function. Nobody needs the permission of the inventor either }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 to
|
||||
hold such beliefs or to discuss them with others. Thus someone who can specify a new, useful, and nonobvious machine, process of manufacture, or formula can obtain the right to exclude others from making, using, or selling anything that meets that }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-5\cf1\insrsid14745692 specification. But he cannot prevent them from thinking about, discussing, and other\-}{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
wise deriving inspiration from the practical insights that underlie his invention.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li0\ri10\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 To sum up, what qualifies a person for a patent is not that he has an idea
|
||||
\emdash even a useful idea\emdash but that he has a useful idea of a highly specific and practicable sort. }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
That is, it is the design for a machine or mechanism, the formula for a composition }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 of matter, or the process for the transformation and reduction of a physical substance to a different
|
||||
state or thing. And what he comes to own, or indeed monopolize, is not }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 the idea as such but, for a limited period of time, the right to "make, use, or sell" that }{\rtlch \af0\afs21
|
||||
\ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 which answers to it.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri2208\sb456\sl-245\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin2208\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-6\cf1\insrsid14745692 Freedom of Thought and Speech as a Constraint }{\rtlch
|
||||
\ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 on Intellectual Property Rights}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri14\sb226\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
There is a parallel here between copyright and patent. Just as the person who holds }{\rtlch \af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 a copyright does not have a proprietary right to an idea, but to a particular tangible }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs21 \ltrch \fs21\expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 expression of it, so it might be said that the patent holder does not have proprietary claim to the useful ideas behind his invention, but rather, to their actual practical }{\rtlch \af0\afs21
|
||||
\ltrch \fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-6\cf1\insrsid14745692 application.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi475\li24\ri10\sb288\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin24\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 It would be a mistake to suppose that this observation holds only idle intellec
|
||||
\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 tual interest. For underlying the fact that ideas as such can be neither patented nor copyrighted is a fundamental moral concern: the rules of the intellectual property sys\-}{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 tem must not be formulated in ways that might jeopardize freedom of thought and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 speech.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li19\ri5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin5\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Other important features of intellectual property law attest to this same concern. }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Thus, patentability does not extend to scientific laws or to methods for solving math\-ematical problems. As the Supreme Court has ruled, these are the "basic tools" of sci\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 entific and technological research and cannot be preempted by anybody }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 (Gottschalk }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 v. Benson
|
||||
}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 [1972]). Also relevant to the present point is the fact that the specification }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
of a granted invention must be placed in the public record, in "full, clear, concise and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 exact terms" (35 U.S.C. sec. 112). In virtue of this, others have the opportunity to }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 assimilate and draw inspiration from the inventor's insights.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li14\ri0\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Turning to the laws governing copyright, one finds that the rights of the copy\-}{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 right holder are delimited by the "fair use" doctrine under which a work may be }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
reproduced "for such purposes as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research" without }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 infringing the copyright holder's proprietary rights (17 U.S.C. sec. 107). Nor is it an }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 infringement of copyright "for a library or archives, or any of its employees acting }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 within the scope of their employment, to reproduce no more than one copy or }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 phonore
|
||||
cord" provided that (1) it is done "without any purpose of direct or indirect }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 commercial advantage"; (2) the collections of the library or archive are open to the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 general public or to the body of scholars in the relevant field; and (3) a notice of copyright is included (17 U.S.C. sec. 108).}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li14\ri14\sb10\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 To make sense of such provisions and qualifications it is plausible to suggest }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 that the intellectual property system has been so designed that, whatever the purpose }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
to be served by granting authors and inventors copyrights and patents, the basic free\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
dom to think about and to discuss the ideas and insights that underlie their writings and inventions needs to be protected.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li24\ri2650\sb451\sl-235\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin2650\lin24\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 JUSTIFICATIONS FOR INTELLECTUAL }{\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch
|
||||
\b\f1\fs21\expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692 PROPERTY RIGHTS}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li0\ri5\sb221\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin5\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 As has been shown, the laws of patent and of copyright are generally formulated }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 within a framework that is intended to preserve basic freedom of thought and expres\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
sion. But why should intellectual property rights be assigned and protected in the first }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 place? In what follows, I will first consider the question of whether the practice of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 granting patent rights is morally defensible, and if so, on what ground. Then, after }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 noting an important contrast between the way in which the laws of copyright and of pat
|
||||
ent deal with the question of independently arrived at but significantly similar achievements, I will explore the question of whether the considerations that seem to }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
provide the most significant support for the patent system support the copyright sys\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 tem as well.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li5\ri0\sb456\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1 \ltrch \b\f1\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 A Libertarian Argument}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li72\ri490\sb274\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin490\lin72\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 One may begin by recalling the somewhat vague but provisionally appealing princi\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 ple that people should be free to do as they choose so long as they do not interfere }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
in other people's lives. Could the inventor's right to patent his invention be a simple }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 exercise of this right to freedom? Whatever the merit of the principle, it is simply too }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 weak to yield the desired conclusion.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li62\ri494\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin494\lin62\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Thus, consider the following: Someone invents the wheel and starts wheeling }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 things around. Others get the idea and, after duly acknowledging and praising the per\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
son who is the source of their inspiration, make wheels of their own for their own }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 personal use. To be sure, when the inventor makes wheels and starts wheeling things }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 around, he does not interfere in the lives of others or limit their liberty in any way }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
that could provide legitimate ground for complaint. But the same could be said of the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 others: when they make wheels for their own personal use, they are not interfering in }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 his life or limiting his liberty to make and to use wheels.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi490\li58\ri490\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin490\lin58\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
It is tempting to object that their use of the idea does constitute an interference in his life. After all, they took the idea from him without his permission. But this objection is subject to the following line of criticism. When someone takes my car }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 without my permission and drives it around, then all the while he is driving around, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
he deprives me of the personal use of it. But when someone takes my idea and\emdash after }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 acknowledging me as the source of his inspiration\emdash makes use of it in his personal }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 life, he does not thereby deprive me of the liberty to do the same, that is, to make }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 use of the idea in my own personal life.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi490\li53\ri499\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin499\lin53\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Indeed, there are at least three
|
||||
senses in which a person who gets an idea from me need not be taking it away from me: (1) I can still think it; (2) I can still enjoy }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
whatever praise or admiration others might be disposed to give to me as the person }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 who th
|
||||
ought of it first; and (3) I can still use it, to all the same personal advantage, in my own personal life. Here it may be objected that if others are at liberty to use }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
the idea without his permission, then the person who came up with the idea first will }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 not make so much money as he would have made otherwise. So in putting it to one's }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 personal use, one does take something away from the other person. One deprives him }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 of something that is rightfully his.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li53\ri509\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin509\lin53\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 But note that "so much money as he would have made otherwise" here signi\-}{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 fies so much money as he would have made if he had had the authority to decide }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 who shall use the idea and on what terms\emdash
|
||||
in short, if he had enjoyed monopoly con\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 trol.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li53\ri504\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin504\lin53\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Thus, to decide whether the use that other people make of an idea has deprived }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 the person who first thought of it of something that is rightfully his, one has to decide }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
whether the first to think of it is entitled to exclude anyone else from using the idea }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 without his permission. Such an entitlement is not a mere liberty, but a power or pre\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 rogative: to have it is to have a measure of authority or control over the lives of oth\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ers. It may be a perfectly legitimate authority, but appealing to personal freedom is }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 not going to be sufficient to legitimatize it. One must appeal to other (presumably stronger) considerations.}{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li19\ri2765\sb456\sl-250\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin2765\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1 \ltrch \b\f1\cf1\insrsid14745692 The Appeal to a Natural, Inherent Property Right }{\rtlch \ab\af1 \ltrch
|
||||
\b\f1\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 in the Products of One's Own Mind}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li14\ri14\sb283\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Consider then the suggestion that the right to patent is not simply a matter of free\-
|
||||
}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 dom, but an implication of the principle that a person owns the products of his own }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
mind. On at least one reading, this principle is certainly very appealing. After all, an idea that is yours (that is, that you have thought up on your own) ought to be yours; }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
you should have the right to think it and to put it to any use that does not violate }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 anybody else's rights. (This last qualification applies to rights in general: my right }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 to my knife does not give me the right to put it in your chest.) But those who argue}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692 }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
for patent rights need a stronger argument to help them establish a stronger conclu\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 sion. They need to argue that a person not only owns (nonexclusively) the applica\-
|
||||
tion of any useful idea that is the product of his own mind but also has, if he is the first to think up the idea and reduce it to practice, the right to exclude others from }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 using it.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li14\ri14\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 To establish this conclusion one might reason along the following lines: In giv\-
|
||||
ing a person exclusive right to the application of an idea that originated with him, no }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 one else's position is worsened. Since the invention would not exist if not for him, it }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 is and ought to be entirely his.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi475\li14\ri0\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 Perhaps the first thing to note is that if the patent system is really to be based }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 on the principle that a person has a natural right to monopolize the application of a }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
useful idea that he is the first to conceive, then it ought to be possible to obtain exclusive right to the application of more general ideas\emdash for example, the idea of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
using electricity to provide indoor illumination, or the idea of converting unstable }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 elements such as uranium into nuclear energy. As I have already noted, however, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 there are many important ideas of great practical significance whose application is }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
not, at least under the present system, made the exclusive right of their first discov\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-3\cf1\insrsid14745692 erers.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi490\li5\ri14\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 This observation leads to another, more damaging, one: If the right to patent is }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 grounded in the principle that there is a natural right to the exclusive use of the orig\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
inal products of one's own mind, then there seems to be no reason that that right }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 should not also extend }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\cf1\insrsid14745692 (a) }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
to theoretical as well as to practical ideas, and }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\cf1\insrsid14745692 (b) }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 to their }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
public discussion as well as to their technological application. In short, the putative }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 right, and the proposed line of argument based on it, are difficult to reconcile with }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 freedom of thought and expression. What is needed is a coherent account of why, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 even though people have such a right, it applies only to certain products of their men\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 tal activity\emdash specific inventions, particular works of authorship\emdash rather than to all }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
such mental products. But even if such an account could be constructed, the approach }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 in question would still be highly questionable on at least two other counts.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li5\ri14\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 First, it is implausible to suppose that someone who is the first to think up a }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 useful idea has conceived something that would not have come into existence other\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
wise. Brilliant though it was, the idea of the wheel would have independently }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 occurred to others. Proof of this is provided by the fact that the idea of the wheel did }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 occur, at different times and in different places, to peoples who had no contact, whether direct or indirect, with one another. And of course, the same can be said, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
with better documentation, about more recent technological advances. But the patent }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 system gives the first discoverer a right to exclude\emdash for the duration of the patent }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 term\emdash even those who, operating independently, make the same discovery shortly }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 afterward. Presumably, these independent
|
||||
inventors are equally entitled to the prod\-ucts of their own minds. Thus, the putative right to appropriate the product of one's }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
own mind does not support, but actually tells against, the policy of giving exclusive }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 rights to first inventors.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li0\ri10\sb10\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Of course, it
|
||||
is not always entirely clear just when a technological development would have occurred in the absence of its actual first discoverer. This might suggest }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
something like the following line of argument: The policy of granting a seventeen-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 year patent term is an\emdash admittedly often inaccurate\emdash approximation to the period of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 time it would have taken others to come up with the invention on their own. Letting }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
the patent pass into the public domain after that period of time is a way of recog\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 nizing the fact that sooner or later the continued enjoyment of exclusive rights would }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 indeed constitute a wrongful worsening of the situation of at least some (not neces\-sarily identifiable) individuals (compare Nozick 1974).}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li10\ri490\sb278\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin490\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 But if this reasoning were indeed appropriate, then it wo
|
||||
uld hardly justify any\-thing like the present system. This is because nearly contemporaneous, independent }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 inventors could not be rightly excluded even for seventeen years. Furthermore, in }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 cases in which the public disclosure of an invention occurs soon enough to put an }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
end to further independent research, the policy of assigning the very same fixed term of exclusive rights, without regard to the particular invention or the general field in }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
which it occurred, would be unjustly crude. Different areas of research and develop\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ment will exhibit demonstrably different rates of overall progress. Even within a given field, progress on a particular technical problem will vary according to the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
stage of the field's development and the intensity of effort devoted to the problem. The principle that people have exclusive right to the product of their own mental activity, just so long as others are not made worse off than they would have been in }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 the absence of that mental activity, would call upon society to make a scrupulous }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
effort to obtain the best available evidence on such matters and to set up the rules of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 the patent system in a way that more adequately reflects these variations.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li5\ri499\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin499\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Second, whoever is the first to think up some important idea, whether practical }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 or theoretical, he is almost certainly not drawing upon his own mental resources only. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
According to ancient legend, Athena sprang full grown from the head of Zeus. But }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 human beings do not spring full grown from either a human or a divine parent. Cer\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 tainly, they add to and enrich the life of the community in which they live, but their }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 capacity to do so, as well as the more particular ways in which they do it, are made }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 possible by a shared and historically transmitted heritage of language, culture, expe\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 rience, and cr
|
||||
aft. When hailed as a great and original genius, Isaac Newton respond\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 ed that he was, after all, only standing "on the shoulders of giants." Indeed, even in }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 making this admirably humble remark, Newton was standing on the shoulders of oth\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 ers; the phrase wa
|
||||
s not original with him but had a long and illustrious history of its own (Merton 1967).}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi475\li5\ri504\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin504\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Thus, from a putative right to the products of one's own mental activity it does }
|
||||
{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
not follow that anybody can rightly claim exclusive control over a useful invention that he is the first to conceive. For nobody can rightly claim that a useful invention, or indeed any intellectual achievement, is fully and solely the product of his own
|
||||
}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 mental activity.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri1766\sb437\sl-245\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin1766\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1 \ltrch \b\f1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Right to Privacy and Freedom of Contract as the Basis for Patent Rights}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li5\ri499\sb211\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin499\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 As I have already noted, an important feature of the patent system is that the appli\-
|
||||
}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 cant must make a disclosure of his innovation in such detail as would be sufficient }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
to enable "any person skilled in the relevant art to make and use the same." This may }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 suggest something like the following line of argument.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi475\li0\ri499\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin499\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
The right to privacy implies that an inventor has the right not to disclose his invention. Patent right\emdash the right to exclusive control over the production and distri\-bution of the invention\emdash
|
||||
arises as part of a contractual agreement between the inven\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 tor and the government. The inventor discloses his invention in return for being grant\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ed a (limited) monopoly privilege. In virtue of this bargain between society and the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
inventor, the inventor comes to have the right to exclude others from making, using, and selling the invention in question. On this view, patent rights are not basic rights }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
but they are the legitimate product of the exercise of two other rights: the right to pri\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
vacy (which implies the right not to disclose any details about one's invention) and the right to make contracts.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi475\li14\ri10\sb259\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 A crucial objection to this line of argument begins with the observation that }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 freedom of contract is not unlimited: a person has no right to make a "hit" contract }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
for example. Thus, to decide whether the would-be patent holder can legitimately demand that nobody else\emdash not even near-contemporaneous independent inventors\emdash
|
||||
be allowed to make, use, or sell whatever is in question, one needs to know if he has }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 the right to make such a demand. If what is demanded is illegitimate, then freedom }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 of contract will not somehow bestow legitimacy upon the corresponding concession. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
Thus, to show that monopoly privilege is a legitimate demand, one cannot merely }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
appeal to the right to privacy and the right to make a contract. The relatively strong proprietary right involved in holding a patent can only be justified by appeal to some }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
other, presumably stronger, consideration.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li29\ri0\sb432\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin29\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1 \ltrch \b\f1\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Patent Right as a Matter of Just Desert}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li19\ri10\sb221\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 In order to provide the added justificatory strength, it is tempting to invoke the notion }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 of just desert. On this approach, the power or prerogative that is afforded by a patent }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
is legitimate insofar as it is deserved. Deserved in virtue of what? Possible candidates }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 are effort and accomplishment. In either version, the principle that people ought to be }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 rewarded according to what they deserve would prescribe more than it seems rea\-sonable to do.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi475\li19\ri5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin5\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
A principle of desert for effort would imply that unsuccessful researchers who nevertheless have expended a great deal of effort and money in an earnest attempt to }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
come up with something useful to the public, and are therefore very deserving, ought }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 to be rewarded. But the patent system does nothing of the kind. Nor does it seem plau\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 sible to suppose that it should. A principle of desert for successful accomplishment }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
would imply that independently successful inventors also ought to be rewarded.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li10\ri0\sb10\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Whatever the basis for desert, there is the further problem of fixing the }{\rtlch
|
||||
\ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 size }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
the deserved reward. How much of a reward does an innovator deserve (whether for }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 his effort or accomplishment)? It is difficult to believe that, regardless of effort or }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 accomplishment, the innovator's deserved reward is whatever income he can secure }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 through holding and exercising a seventeen-year monopoly.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li5\ri10\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Finally, and more generally, it
|
||||
is far from clear that desert is an appropriate basis }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 for the design of legal and political arrangements. What people deserve is often quite }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
properly contrasted with the (institutional) entitlements that they (morally) ought to }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 have. A baseball team may rightfully lay claim to a victory that was really deserved }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 by the other team. Why the contrast? If both teams play fairly and in full observance }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
of the rules, then the team that actually wins is the rightful victor. But if the other team }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 both has the greater talent and has made the greater effort then it might be said to be }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 more deserving of a victory. Why then did it lose? "Bad luck," one might say. Of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
course, who is to decide which team is more talented or has made the greater effort?}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li5\ri24\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin24\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 An institutional arrangement that superimposed upon its system of announced }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 rules and regulations an authority with the discretion to determine who is really most deserving after all, and to award victory accordingly, would not seem morally defen\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 sible. The discretion in question would be too susceptible to arbitrary or discrimina\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
tory exercise. It is not that the notion of desert has no meaning. Rather, if one is to }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 think of it as a principle of institutional design, it seems more appropriate for God or }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 some other supposedly incorruptible and omniscient being than for ordinary mortals.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li29\ri0\sb283\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin29\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 From these reflections, this point emerges: no plausible conception of what peo\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 ple deserve and why they deserve it would lead to anything like the present patent}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692 }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
system. It is, in any event, questionable whether the notion of desert ought to play a significant role in the design of legal and political arrangements.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li19\ri1766\sb413\sl-245\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin1766\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd-1\expndtw-7\cf1\insrsid14745692 Progress in Technology: A Forward-Looking Defense }{\rtlch
|
||||
\ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 of Patent Rights}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li10\ri5\sb216\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin5\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Perhaps the most plausible argument for the special authority that is vested in patent }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 holders turns on the long-term effects of the patent system upon research and devel\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
opment efforts. The suggestion is that, as an incentive to greater technological }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 prog
|
||||
ress, the normal condition of free and open competition may need to be, from time to time and for a limited period of time, suspended.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li14\ri10\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
In this spirit, the U.S. Constitution in article 1, section 8 does not call upon Congress to make laws protecting a person's natural proprietary right to the products of his own mind. Instead, as is well known, the Constitution authorizes Congress to }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 enact laws whose purpose is "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 securing for limited times to authors and
|
||||
inventors the exclusive right to their respec\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 tive writings and discoveries." The basic philosophical point is elaborated by the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Supreme Court:}{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li490\ri10\sb283\sl-197\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin490\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
The patent monopoly was not designed to secure to the inventor his natural right in his discoveries. Rather, it was a reward, an inducement, to bring forth new knowledge. The }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
grant of an exclusive right to an invention was the creation of society\emdash at odds with the }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692 inherent free nature of disclosed ideas\emdash and was not to be freely given. Only inventions }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 and discoveries which furthered human knowledge, and were new and useful, justified }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692 the special inducement of a limited private monopoly. }{
|
||||
\rtlch \ai\af0\afs18 \ltrch \i\fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692 (Graham }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692 v. }{\rtlch \ai\af0\afs18 \ltrch \i\fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692 John Deere Co., }{\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\cf1\insrsid14745692 383 }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0\afs18 \ltrch \fs18\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 U.S. 1, 9 [1966])}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi490\li5\ri14\sb274\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Thus the patent system emerges as a device for getting the best of both worlds. Monop
|
||||
oly privilege serves as an initial incentive to innovation; its limited duration eventually allows for the usual effect of free and open competition. Moreover, all this }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
takes place within a framework that preserves the basic freedom of thought and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 speech so essential to the long-term progress of both science and technology.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li5\ri0\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 There is a good deal of common sense in this line of argument. Those who }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 engage in research and development often have to expend significant amounts of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
time, energy, and money without much assurance of success. Moreover, those who }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 do succeed face the prospect of being undersold by competitors who are able to dis\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 cern and duplicate what is usefully innovative without having to incur comparable }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 research and development expenses.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li0\ri14\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 In virtue of these two difficulties\emdash the greater uncertainty of success and the }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 relative ease of free riding\emdash research and development efforts are likely to fall short }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 of what the long-term health
|
||||
and well-being of society would seem to warrant. The }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
patent system can be viewed as a device for correcting, at least to some extent, for these difficulties. Does it correct enough, or perhaps too much? Some would claim }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 that the patent system overstimulate
|
||||
s technological innovation and fosters wasteful duplication of research effort. Others would argue that the incentive it provides is not strong enough.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li34\ri10\sb288\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin34\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 To evaluate such complaints one needs to be able to measure the impact of the }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 patent system upon the rate of technological development. The state of affairs that }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
would have obtained were patent rights not actually recognized has to be evaluated against the state of affairs that does obtain in virtue of them. It is not easy to verify }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
or validate this rather complicated counterfactual comparison. Moreover, one needs to know more about what rate of technological development is supposed to be opti\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
mal and why. It is one thing to maintain that under the normal operation of market }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 forces, research and development efforts would surely be inadequate, yet quite anoth\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 er to claim that one can specify with any precision an optimum level of such effort.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li29\ri0\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin29\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Now, there may well be cases in which\emdash without knowing just what level of }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 research would be optimal\emdash one can nevertheless be reasonably confident that more }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
research than is presently being undertaken would be desirable. This hardly consti\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 tutes a fatal criticism of the practice of recognizing patent rights as such. If greater }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 incentive to research and development is needed, it can generally be achieved through modifications of the patent system itself (for example, extending the life of the patent, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 granting the patentee the right to make licensing agreements that bar challenges to }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 the legal validity of the patent) or through a
|
||||
dditional mechanisms (government }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 research grants, prizes) that can operate in conjunction with the patent system.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li29\ri10\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin29\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Of course, in evaluating an institutional design or public policy, one must look }
|
||||
{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 not only at the prospective benefits but at the costs as well. Competition in the mar\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ketplace is generally regarded as a spur to higher quality of production at lower }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 prices. Monopoly is thought to be counterproductive of these good effects. Thus, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 whatever contribution the patent system makes to the progress of technology needs }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
to be weighed against the reduction of quality and the increase in price that are the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 usual consequences of monopoly privilege.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi509\li5\ri14\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin14\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 In addition, it seems likely that the supposed benefit of having the patent sys\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 tem\emdash namely, incentive to innovation\emdash will vary considerably along with the nature of the technology. Securing a patent tends to be a prolonged, costly, and uncertain }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 process; once a patent has been obtained, the effort to protect it through infringement }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 suits can also be costly and prolonge
|
||||
d. Thus, for fields in which there is rapid tech\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 nological development, patent rights may bring too little too late to provide any real }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
incentive. In these areas, simply getting there first may be its own, and the most sig\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 nificant, reward.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li0\ri48\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin48\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 Even so, the rate of technological innovation has certainly been greatest in }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 those social systems which do recognize intellectual property rights. It has yet to be }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 demonstrated that other factors\emdash cultural rather than legal
|
||||
\emdash have played the more sig\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 nificant role. In the a
|
||||
bsence of such a demonstration, it seems highly unlikely that, even without a measure of intellectual property protection, technological progress }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 would have been just as great.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li0\ri24\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin24\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Moreover, the alleged conflict between providing a healthy incentive to inno\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 vation and maintaining a vigorously competitive marketplace is not so clearcut as }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
might appear. Once again, much depends on the particular field or industry. There are areas in which significant research and development can be meaningfully undertaken }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 by re
|
||||
latively new and smaller firms. Failure to provide some measure of exclusivity }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 to their accomplishments may only ensure that such firms have little chance of sur\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 viving, no matter how innovative they are. Without such protection, the Goliaths of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 the industry could readily assimilate any commercially viable innovations and bring }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 them to market at prices that the smaller firms cannot match. In some fields, then, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
limited monopoly protection may not only spur innovation, but actually help the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Davids to establish themselves against the Goliaths. The net result, of course, would }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 be to widen and invigorate, rather than to weaken, the competitive field.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li19\ri490\sb283\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin490\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 On the other hand, there are fields in which technological change comes main\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 ly from very large firms that have invested heavily in research and development too costly and complicated for newer and smaller firms to handle. In these areas, there }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 may be little chance for the field of competitors to widen\emdash unless other firms do have the guaranteed opportunity to bring innovations to market, while paying reasonable }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
royalties to the innovating firm. An obvious problem here is to determine a reason\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 able royalty rate. But if some policy of this sort could be put into practice, it might }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 represent an appropriate balance between the need to encourage innovation and the need to keep markets in new technologies reasonably competitive.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li19\ri0\sb442\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs21 \ltrch \b\f1\fs21\expnd0\expndtw-4\cf1\insrsid14745692 The Appeal to Fairness}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li10\ri494\sb221\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin494\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
A useful invention can make a positive contribution to the good of others. To arrive }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 at it, the inventor(s) may have to expend a considerable amount of time, energy, and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 money. Sometimes, other people come along and\emdash being in a position to imitate, duplicate, or reverse engineer the invention without sustaining comparable research }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 and development costs\emdash produce the same, or an obviously similar, product at a }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
lower price. By free riding on the efforts of the original discoverer, they achieve a }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 superior competitive position. It seems unfair that the persons whose efforts have }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\cf1\insrsid14745692 helped to make a technological benefit possible are, by very reason of those efforts, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 placed at a significant competitive disadvantage.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li14\ri499\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin499\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 Of course, as has already been seen, free riding can be worrisome\emdash
|
||||
not because it is inherently unfair, but (from a more purely forward-looking or consequentialist }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692 perspective) in virtue of how it weakens the incentive to engage in innovative }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 research and development in the first place. An interesting question, then, is the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 extent to which free riding can be regarded as objectionable in its o
|
||||
wn right, quite }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 apart from its impact upon the rate of technological development. Grant, for the sake }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
of argument, that free riding of this sort is, in some sense, unfair; one may still well }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 wonder what would be fair?}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li5\ri494\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin494\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Fairness might seem to imply that, at
|
||||
the very least, the persons who have shouldered the burden of making a benefit to others possible ought to receive ade\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
quate compensation. This raises the obvious question, When is compensation ade\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 quate? Unfortunately, the obvious answer\emdash When it is enough to cover the costs of }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 research and development\emdash is not without difficulties of its own. Thus, it is perfect\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ly conceivable that the time, money, and effort actually expended were excessive and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 that a more efficiently managed research and development project would have yield\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 ed the same result at lower cost. Alternatively, it is possible that the benefit to oth\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 ers\emdash though real\emdash
|
||||
is not great enough to have warranted the heavy expense of (even }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 the most efficiently undertaken) research and development. So from t
|
||||
he mere fact that someone has managed to produce a technological result that is beneficial to others, it }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 cannot be inferred that he or she ought to receive a monetary return that completely }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 covers his original research and development costs.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li5\ri509\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin509\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 It might be thought that what fairness requires is not that inventors be com\-
|
||||
pensated for their efforts but rewarded in proportion to the value of the contribution }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 those efforts have made to the well-being of others. But what is the value of a given }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 contribution? And what would count as an appropriate reward? Providing a satisfac\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
tory account of such matters would seem to be an even harder task than working out a theory of adequate compensation.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi480\li0\ri514\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin514\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Instead of trying to answer these questions with any precision
|
||||
, or even at all, a }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 plausible route to take might be to protect the innovator against blatant free riding }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
but then to let his financial return be determined by the forces of the marketplace. He}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li14\ri10\sb293\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 would accept the outcome whether those forces accurately reflect the long-term value }{\rtlch \af0
|
||||
\ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 of his contribution to society and whether this original investment is recovered. Tak\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
ing this route avoids the unpleasant and illiberal prospect of giving someone the }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 power and discretion to sit in Washington and impose upon the community of inno\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 vators and upon society as a whole his own particular view of what has value.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi485\li14\ri0\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 On this theory, the intellectual property system results from an attempt to }{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 achieve a measure of fairness within the limits of a safely decentralized economy. In }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 essence, inventors are thought to be entitled\emdash
|
||||
not to compensation or reward\emdash but }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 rather, to a fair chance to achieve a market determined return on their investment. ...}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li19\ri0\sb442\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin19\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch \b\f1\fs22\cf1\insrsid14745692 CONCLUDING REMARKS}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li5\ri10\sb211\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin10\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 I began by asking whether the intellectual property system as we know it confers }{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 ownership of ideas. In arriving at a negative answer, I also came to the realization }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
that an important constraint operating upon the design of the intellectual property sys\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 tem is the concern to preserve basic freedom of thought and expression. Patents and }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 copyrights give people special rights, not to ideas as such, but to their practical appli\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 cation and to their particular expression. I then investigated possible justificat
|
||||
ions for }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 instituting the rules of the patent system. Some arguments (from personal liberty, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
from the right to privacy together with the right to make contracts) proved too little. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Other arguments (from an alleged right to the products of one's own mental activity, }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 or from just desert) would, if they were to work, prove far too much. They also, as }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \cf1\insrsid14745692 it happened, proved to be inherently confused and implausible. This left two reason\-}{
|
||||
\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 ably plausible and relevant concerns: to promote technological progress and to pre\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 vent unfair free riding.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch
|
||||
\insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li5\ri0\sb456\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1 \ltrch \b\f1\expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Acknowledgment}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \li10\ri24\sb216\sl-221\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin24\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw-1\cf1\insrsid14745692 I received valuable criticism on earlier versions of this essay from the Cal Tech Phi
|
||||
\-}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw3\cf1\insrsid14745692 losophy Discussion Groups, the Society for Philosophy and Public Policy in New }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
York, and in particular, Stefan Mengelberg, a member of the latter group.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li14\ri0\sb432\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin14\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \ab\af1\afs22 \ltrch \b\f1\fs22\expnd0\expndtw-2\cf1\insrsid14745692 REFERENCES}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\sb206\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Merton, R. K. 1967. }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 New York:}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li5\ri0\sl-259\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin5\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Nozick, R. 1974. }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 Anarchy, State, and Utopia. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw2\cf1\insrsid14745692 New York: Basic Books.}{\rtlch
|
||||
\af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692 Rand, A. 1967. }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692 Patents and Copyrights in Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd1\expndtw5\cf1\insrsid14745692 New
|
||||
}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 York: New American Library, p. 133.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\sb29\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 Rothbard, M. N. 1977. }{\rtlch \ai\af0 \ltrch \i\expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692
|
||||
Power and Market: Government and the Economy. }{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw4\cf1\insrsid14745692 2d ed.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \expnd0\expndtw1\cf1\insrsid14745692 New York: New York University Press, p. 71.}{\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi470\li10\ri53\sb10\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin53\lin10\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\ql \fi475\li0\ri0\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14745692 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid14745692
|
||||
\par }\pard \ltrpar\qj \fi240\li0\ri504\sb5\sl-216\slmult0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin504\lin0\itap0 \cbpat8 {\rtlch \af0 \ltrch \insrsid1407503
|
||||
\par }}
|
||||
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Reference in New Issue